[9] Statistical Journal for March 1848.  Paper by Richard Valpy on "The
Resources of the Irish Sea Fisheries," pp. 55-72.

[10] HALL, Retrospect of a Long Life, ii. 324.

[11] The Commissioners of Irish Fisheries, in one of their reports,
observe:--"Notwithstanding the diminished population, the fish captured
round the coast is so inadequate to the wants of the population that
fully 150,000L. worth of ling, cod, and herring are annually imported
from Norway, Newfoundland, and Scotland, the vessels bearing these
cargoes, as they approach the shores of Ireland, frequently sailing
through large shoals of fish of the same description as they are
freighted with!"

[12] The following examination of Mr. J. Ennis, chairman of the Midland
and Great Western Railway, took place before the "Royal Commission on
Railways," as long ago as the year 1846:--

Chairman--"Is the fish traffic of any importance to your railway?"

Mr. Ennis--"of course it is, and we give it all the facilities that we
can....  But the Galway fisheries, where one would expect to find
plenty of fish, are totally neglected."

Sir Rowland Hill--"What is the reason of that?"

Mr. Ennis--"I will endeavour to explain.  I had occasion a few nights
ago to speak to a gentleman in the House of Commons with regard to an
application to the Fishery Board for 2000L. to restore the pier at
Buffin, in Clew Bay, and I said, 'Will you join me in the application?
I am told it is a place that swarms with fish, and if we had a pier
there the fishermen will have some security, and they will go out.' The
only answer I received was, 'They will not go out; they pay no
attention whatever to the fisheries; they allow the fish to come and go
without making any effort to catch them....'"

Mr. Ayrton--"Do you think that if English fishermen went to the west
coast of Ireland they would be able to get on in harmony with the
native fishermen?"

Mr. Ennis--"We know the fact to be, that some years ago, a company was
established for the purpose of trawling in Galway Bay, and what was the
consequence?  The Irish fishermen, who inhabit a region in the
neighbourhood of Galway, called Claddagh, turned out against them, and
would not allow them to trawl, and the Englishmen very properly went
away with their lives."

Sir Rowland Hill--"Then they will neither fish themselves nor allow any
one else to fish!"

Mr. Ennis--"It seems to be so."--Minutes of Evidence, 175-6.

[13] The Derry Journal.

[14] Report of Inspectors of Irish Fisheries for 1882.

[15] The Report of the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries on the Sea and
Inland Fisheries of Ireland for 1882, gives a large amount of
information as to the fish which swarm round the Irish coast. Mr. Brady
reports on the abundance of herring and other fish all round the coast.
Shoals of herrings "remained off nearly the entire coast of Ireland
from August till December."  "Large shoals of pilchards" were observed
on the south and south-west coasts.  Off Dingle, it is remarked, "the
supply of all kinds of fish is practically inexhaustible."

"Immense shoals of herrings off Liscannor and Loop Head;"  "the
mackerel is always on this coast, and can be captured at any time of
the year, weather permitting."  At Belmullet, "the shoals of fish off
the coast, particularly herring and mackerel, are sometimes enormous."
The fishermen, though poor, are all very orderly and well conducted.
They only want energy and industry.

[16] The Harleian Miscellany, iii. 378-91.

[17] The Harleian Miscellany, iii. 392.

[18] See The Huguenots in England and Ireland.  A Board of Traders, for
the encouragement and promotion of the hemp and flax manufacture in
Ireland, was appointed by an Act of Parliament at the beginning of last
century (6th October, 1711), and the year after the appointment of the
Board the following notice was placed on the records of the
institution:--"Louis Crommelin and the Huguenot colony have been
greatly instrumental in improving and propagating the flaxen
manufacture in the north of this Kingdom, and the perfection to which
the same is brought in that part of the country has been greatly owing
to the skill and industry of the said Crommelin."  In a history of the
linen trade, published at Belfast, it is said that "the dignity which
that enterprising man imparted to labour, and the halo which his
example cast around physical exertion, had the best effect in raising
the tone of popular feeling, as well among the patricians as among the
peasants of the north of Ireland.  This love of industry did much to
break down the national prejudice in favour of idleness, and cast
doubts on the social orthodoxy of the idea then so popular with the
squirearchy, that those alone who were able to live without employment
had any rightful claim to the distinctive title of gentleman....  A
patrician by birth and a merchant by profession, Crommelin proved, by
his own life, his example, and his enterprise, that an energetic
manufacturer may, at the same time, take a high place in the
conventional world."

[19] Benn's History of Belfast, p. 78.

[20] From the Irish Manufacturers' Almanack for 1883 I learn that
nearly one-third of the spindles used in Europe in the linen trade, and
more than one-fourth of the power-looms, belong to Ireland, that "the
Irish linen and associated trades at present give employment to 176,303
persons; and it is estimated that the capital sunk in spinning and
weaving factories, and the business incidental thereto, is about
100,000,000L., and of that sum 37,000,000L. is credited to Belfast
alone."

[21] The importation of coal in 1883 amounted to over 700,000 tons.

[22] We are indebted to the obliging kindness of the Right Hon. Mr.
Fawcett, Postmaster-General for this return.  The total number of
depositors in the Post Office Savings banks in the Parliamentary
borough of Belfast is 10,827 and the amount of their deposits,
including the interest standing to their credit, on the 31st December,
1882, was 158,064L. 0s. 1d.

An important item in the savings of Belfast, not included in the above
returns, consists in the amounts of deposits made with the various
Limited Companies, as well as with the thriving Building Societies in
the town and neighbourhood.



CHAPTER XI.

SHIPBUILDING IN BELFAST--ITS ORIGIN AND PROGRESS.

BY SIR E. J. HARLAND, ENGINEER AND SHIPBUILDER.

"The useful arts are but reproductions or new combinations by the art
of man, of the same natural benefactors.  He no longer waits for
favouring gales, but by means of steam he realises the fable of
AEolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his
boat."--Emerson.

"The most exquisite and the most expensive machinery is brought into
play where operations on the most common materials are to be performed,
because these are executed on the widest scale.  This is the meaning of
the vast and astonishing prevalence of machine work in this country:
that the machine, with its million fingers, works for millions of
purchasers, while in remote countries, where magnificence and savagery
stand side by side, tens of thousands work for one.  There Art labours
for the rich alone; here she works for the poor no less.  There the
multitude produce only to give splendour and grace to the despot or the
warrior, whose slaves they are, and whom they enrich; here the man who
is powerful in the weapons of peace, capital, and machinery, uses them
to give comfort and enjoyment to the public, whose servant he is, and
thus becomes rich while he enriches others with his goods."--William
Whewell, D.D.

I was born at Scarborough in May, 1831, the sixth of a family of eight.
My father was a native of Rosedale, half-way between Whitby and
Pickering:  his nurse was the sister of Captain Scoresby, celebrated as
an Arctic explorer.  Arrived at manhood, he studied medicine, graduated
at Edinburgh, and practised in Scarborough until nearly his death in
1866.  He was thrice Mayor and a Justice of the Peace for the borough.
Dr. Harland was a man of much force of character, and displayed great
originality in the treatment of disease.  Besides exercising skill in
his profession, he had a great love for mechanical pursuits.  He spent
his leisure time in inventions of many sorts; and, in conjunction with
the late Sir George Cayley of Brompton, he kept an excellent mechanic
constantly at work.

In 1827 he invented and patented a steam-carriage for running on common
roads.  Before the adoption of railways, the old stage coaches were
found slow and insufficient for the traffic.  A working model of the
steam-coach was perfected, embracing a multitubular boiler for quickly
raising high-pressure steam, with a revolving surface condenser for
reducing the steam to water again, by means of its exposure to the cold
draught of the atmosphere through the interstices of extremely thin
laminations of copper plates.  The entire machinery, placed under the
bottom of the carriage, was borne on springs; the whole being of an
elegant form.  This model steam-carriage ascended with perfect ease the
steepest roads.  Its success was so complete that Dr. Harland designed
a full-sized carriage; but the demands upon his professional skill were
so great that he was prevented going further than constructing the pair
of engines, the wheels, and a part of the boiler,--all of which
remnants I still preserve, as valuable links in the progress of steam
locomotion.

Other branches of practical science--such as electricity, magnetism,
and chemical cultivation of the soil--received a share of his
attention.  He predicted that three or four powerful electric lamps
would yet light a whole city.  He was also convinced of the feasibility
of an electric cable to New York, and calculated the probable cost.  As
an  example to the neighbourhood, he successfully cultivated a tract of
moorland, and overcame difficulties which before then were thought
insurmountable.

When passing through Newcastle, while still a young man, on one of his
journeys to the University at Edinburgh, and being desirous of
witnessing the operations in a coal-mine, a friend recommended him to
visit Killingworth pit, where he would find one George Stephenson, a
most intelligent workman, in charge.  My father was introduced to Mr.
Stephenson accordingly; and after rambling over the underground
workings, and observing the pumping and winding engines in full
operation, a friendship was made, which afterwards proved of the
greatest service to myself, by facilitating my being placed as a pupil
at the great engineering works of Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Co., at
Newcastle.

My mother was the daughter of Gawan Pierson, a landed proprietor of
Goathland, near Rosedale.  She, too, was surprisingly mechanical in her
tastes; and assisted my father in preparing many of his plans, besides
attaining considerable proficiency in drawing, painting, and modelling
in wax.  Toys in those days were poor, as well as very expensive to
purchase.  But the nursery soon became a little workshop under her
directions; and the boys were usually engaged, one in making a cart,
another in carving out a horse, and a third in cutting out a boat;
while the girls were making harness, or sewing sails, or cutting out
and making perfect dresses for their dolls--whose houses were
completely furnished with everything, from the kitchen to the attic,
all made at home.

It was in a house of such industry and mechanism that I was brought up.
As a youth, I was slow at my lessons; preferring to watch and assist
workmen when I had an opportunity of doing so, even with the certainty
of having a thrashing from the schoolmaster for my neglect.  Thus I got
to know every workshop and every workman in the town.  At any rate I
picked up a smattering of a variety of trades, which afterwards proved
of the greatest use to me.  The chief of these was wooden shipbuilding,
a branch of industry then extensively carried on by Messrs. William and
Robert Tindall, the former of whom resided in London; he was one of the
half-dozen great shipbuilders and owners who founded "Lloyd's."
Splendid East Indiamen, of some 1000 tons burden, were then built at
Scarborough; and scarcely a timber was moulded, a plank bent, a spar
lined off, or launching ship-ways laid, without my being present to
witness them.  And thus, in course of time, I was able to make for
myself the neatest and fastest of model yachts.

At that time, I attended the Grammar School.  Of the rudiments taught,
I was fondest of drawing, geometry, and Euclid.  Indeed, I went twice
through the first two books of the latter before I was twelve years
old.  At this age I was sent to the Edinburgh Academy, my eldest
brother William being then a medical student at the University.  I
remained at Edinburgh two years.  My early progress in mathematics
would have been lost in the classical training which was then insisted
upon at the academy, but for my brother who was not only a good
mathematician but an excellent mechanic.  He took care to carry on my
instruction in that branch of knowledge, as well as to teach me to make
models of machines and buildings, in which he was himself proficient.
I remember, in one of my journeys to Edinburgh, by coach from
Darlington, that a gentleman expressed his wonder what a screw
propeller could be like; for the screw, as a method of propulsion, was
then being introduced.  I pointed out to him the patent tail of a
windmill by the roadside, and said, "It is just like that!"

In 1844 my mother died; and shortly after, my brother having become
M.D., and obtained a prize gold medal, we returned to Scarborough.  It
was intended that he should assist my father; but he preferred going
abroad for a few years.  I may mention further, with relation to him,
that after many years of scientific research and professional practice,
he died at Hong Kong in 1858, when a public monument was erected to his
memory, in what is known as the "Happy Valley."

I remained for a short time under the tuition of my old master. But as
the time was rapidly approaching when I too must determine what I was
"to be" in life.  I had no hesitation in deciding to be an engineer,
though my father wished me to be a barrister. But I kept constant to my
resolution; and eventually he succeeded, through his early acquaintance
with George Stephenson, in gaining for me an entrance to the
engineering works of Robert Stephenson and Co., at Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
I started there as a pupil on my fifteenth birthday, for an
apprenticeship of five years.  I was to spend the first four years in
the various workshops, and the last year in the drawing-office.

I was now in my element.  The working hours, it is true, were very
long,--being from six in the morning until 8.15 at night; excepting on
Saturday, when we knocked off at four.  However, all this gave me so
much the more experience; and, taking advantage of it, I found that,
when I had reached the age of eighteen, I was intrusted with the full
charge of erecting one side of a locomotive.  I had to accomplish the
same amount of work as my mate on the other side, one Murray Playfair,
a powerful, hard-working Scotchman.  My strength and endurance were
sometimes taxed to the utmost, and required the intervals of my labour
to be spent in merely eating and sleeping.

I afterwards went through the machine-shops.  I was fortunate enough to
get charge of the best screw-cutting and brass-turning lathe in the
shop; the former occupant, Jack Singleton, having just been promoted to
a foreman's berth at the Messrs. Armstrong's factory.  He afterwards
became superintendent of all the hydraulic machinery of the Mersey Dock
Trust at Liverpool. After my four years had been completed, I went into
the drawing-office, to which I had looked forward with pleasure; and,
having before practised lineal as well as free-hand drawing, I soon
succeeded in getting good and difficult designs to work out, and
eventually finished drawings of the engines.  Indeed, on visiting the
works many years after, one of these drawings was shown to me as a
"specimen;" the person exhibiting it not knowing that it was my own
work.

In the course of my occasional visits to Scarborough, my attention was
drawn to the imperfect design of the lifeboats of the period; the
frequent shipwrecks along the coast indicating the necessity for their
improvement.  After considerable deliberation, I matured a plan for a
metal lifeboat, of a cylindrico-conical or chrysalis form, to be
propelled by a screw at each end, turned by sixteen men inside, seated
on water-ballast tanks; sufficient room being left at the ends inside
for the accommodation of ten or twelve shipwrecked persons; while a
mate near the bow, and the captain near the stern in charge of the
rudder, were stationed in recesses in the deck about three feet deep.
The whole apparatus was almost cylindrical, and watertight, save in the
self-acting ventilators, which could only give access to the smallest
portion of water.  I considered that, if the lifeboat fully manned were
launched into the roughest seas, or off the deck of a vessel, it would,
even if turned on its back, immediately right itself, without any of
the crew being disturbed from their positions, to which they were to
have been strapped.

It happened that at this time (the summer of 1850) his Grace the late
Duke of Northumberland, who had always taken a deep interest in the
Lifeboat Institution, offered a prize of one hundred guineas for the
best model and design of such a craft; so I determined to complete my
plans and make a working model of my lifeboat.  I came to the
conclusion that the cylindrico-conical form, with the frames to be
carried completely round and forming beams as well, and the two screws,
one at each end, worked off the same power, by which one or other of
them would always be immersed, were worth registering in the Patent
Office.  I therefore entered a caveat there; and continued working at
my model in the evenings.  I first made a wooden block model, on the
scale of an inch to the foot.  I had some difficulty in procuring
sheets of copper thin enough, so that the model should draw only the
correct amount of water; but at last I succeeded, through finding the
man at Newcastle who had supplied my father with copper plates for his
early road locomotive.

The model was only 32 inches in length, and 8 inches in beam; and in
order to fix all the internal fittings, of tanks, seats, crank handles,
and pulleys, I had first to fit the shell plating, and then, by finally
securing one strake of plates on, and then another, after all inside
was complete, I at last finished for good the last outside plate.  In
executing the job, my early experience of all sorts of handiwork came
serviceably to my aid. After many a whole night's work--for the
evenings alone were not sufficient for the purpose--I at length
completed my model; and triumphantly and confidently took it to sea in
an open boat; and then cast it into the waves.  The model either rode
over them or passed through them; if it was sometimes rolled over, it
righted itself at once, and resumed its proper attitude in the waters.
After a considerable trial I found scarcely a trace of water inside.
Such as had got there was merely through the joints in the sliding
hatches; though the ventilators were free to work during the
experiments.

I completed the prescribed drawings and specifications, and sent them,
together with the model, to Somerset House.  Some 280 schemes of
lifeboats were submitted for competition; but mine was not successful.
I suspect that the extreme novelty of the arrangement deterred the
adjudicators from awarding in its favour.  Indeed, the scheme was so
unprecedented, and so entirely out of the ordinary course of things,
that there was no special mention made of it in the report afterwards
published, and even the description there given was incorrect.  The
prize was awarded to Mr. James Beeching, of Great Yarmouth, whose plans
were afterwards generally adopted by the Lifeboat Society.  I have
preserved my model just as it was; and some of its features have since
been introduced with advantage into shipbuilding.[1]

The firm of Robert Stephenson and Co. having contracted to build for
the Government three large iron caissons for the Keyham Docks, and as
these were very similar in construction to that of an ordinary iron
ship, draughtsmen conversant with that class of work were specially
engaged to superintend it.  The manager, knowing my fondness for ships,
placed me as his assistant at this new work.  After I had mastered it,
I endeavoured to introduce improvements, having observed certain
defects in laying down the lines--I mean by the use of graduated curves
cut out of thin wood.  In lieu of this method, I contrived thin tapered
laths of lancewood, and weights of a particular form, with steel claws
and knife edges attached, so as to hold the lath tightly down to the
paper, yet capable of being readily adjusted, so as to produce any form
of curve, along which the pen could freely and continuously travel.
This method proved very efficient, and it has since come into general
use.

The Messrs. Stephenson were then also making marine engines, as well as
large condensing pumping engines, and a large tubular bridge to be
erected over the river Don.  The splendid high-level bridge over the
Tyne, of which Robert Stephenson was the engineer, was also in course
of construction.  With the opportunity of seeing these great works in
progress, and of visiting, during my holidays and long evenings, most
of the manufactories and mines in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, I
could not fail to pick up considerable knowledge, and an acquaintance
with a vast variety of trades.  There were about thirty other pupils in
the works at the same time with myself; some were there either through
favour or idle fancy; but comparatively few gave their full attention
to the work, and I have since heard nothing of them.  Indeed, unless a
young fellow takes a real interest in his work, and has a genuine love
for it, the greatest advantages will prove of no avail whatever.

It was a good plan adopted at the works, to require the pupils to keep
the same hours as the rest of the men, and, though they paid a premium
on entering, to give them the same rate of wages as the rest of the
lads.  Mr. William Hutchinson, a contemporary of George Stephenson, was
the managing partner.  He was a person of great experience, and had the
most thorough knowledge of men and materials, knowing well how to
handle both to the best advantage.

His son-in-law, Mr. William Weallans, was the head draughtsman, and
very proficient, not only in quickness but in accuracy and finish.  I
found it of great advantage to have the benefit of the example and the
training of these very clever men.

My five years apprenticeship was completed in May 1851, on my twentieth
birthday.  Having had but very little "black time," as it was called,
beyond the half-yearly holiday for visiting my friends, and having only
"slept in" twice during the five years, I was at once entered on the
books as a journeyman, on the "big" wage of twenty shillings a week.
Orders were, however, at that time very difficult to be had.

Railway trucks, and even navvies' barrows, were contracted for in order
to keep the men employed.  It was better not to discharge them, and to
find something for them to do.  At the same time it was not very
encouraging for me, under such circumstances, to remain with the firm.
I therefore soon arranged to leave; and first of all I went to see
London.  It was the Great Exhibition year of 1851.  I need scarcely say
what a rich feast I found there, and how thoroughly I enjoyed it all.
I spent about two months in inspecting the works of art and mechanics
in the Exhibition, to my own great advantage.  I then returned home;
and, after remaining in Scarborough for a short time, I proceeded to
Glasgow with a letter of introduction to Messrs. J. and G. Thomson,
marine engine builders, who started me on the same wages which I had
received at Stephenson's, namely twenty shillings a week.

I found the banks of the Clyde splendid ground for gaining further
mechanical knowledge.  There were the ship and engine works on both
sides of the river, down to Govan; and below there, at Renfrew,
Dumbarton, Port Glasgow, and Greenock--no end of magnificent yards--so
that I had plenty of occupation for my leisure time on Saturday
afternoons.  The works of Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons were then at
the top of the tree.  The largest Cunard steamers were built and
engined there.  Tod and Macgregor were the foremost in screw
steamships--those for the Peninsular and Oriental Company being
splendid models of symmetry and works of art.  Some of the fine wooden
paddle-steamers built in Bristol for the Royal Mail Company were sent
round to the Clyde for their machinery.  I contrived to board all these
ships from time to time, so as to become well acquainted with their
respective merits and peculiarities.

As an illustration of how contrivances, excellent in principle, but
defective in construction, may be discarded, but again taken up under
more favourable circumstances, I may mention that I saw a Hall's patent
surface-condensor thrown to one side from one of these steamers, the
principal difficulty being in keeping it tight.  And yet, in the course
of a very few years, by the simplest possible contrivance--inserting an
indiarubber ring round each end of the tube (Spencer's patent)--surface
condensation in marine engines came into vogue; and there is probably
no ocean-going steamer afloat without it, furnished with every variety
of suitable packings.

After some time, the Messrs. Thomson determined to build their own
vessels, and an experienced naval draughtsman was engaged, to whom I
was "told off" whenever he needed assistance.  In the course of time,
more and more of the ship work came in my way. Indeed, I seemed to
obtain the preference.  Fortunately for us both, my superior obtained
an appointment of a similar kind on the Tyne, at superior pay, and I
was promoted to his place.  The Thomsons had now a very fine
shipbuilding-yard, in full working order, with several large steamers
on the stocks.  I was placed in the drawing-office as head draughtsman.
At the same time I had no rise of wages; but still went on enjoying my
twenty shillings a week.  I was, however, gaining information and
experience, and knew that better pay would follow in due course of
time.  And without solicitation I was eventually offered an engagement
for a term of years, at an increased and increasing salary, with three
months' notice on either side.

I had only enjoyed the advance for a short time, when Mr. Thomas
Toward, a shipbuilder on the Tyne, being in want of a manager, made
application to the Messrs. Stephenson for such a person. They mentioned
my name, and Mr. Toward came over to the Clyde to see me.  The result
was, that I became engaged, and it was arranged that I should enter on
my enlarged duties on the Tyne in the autumn of 1853.  It was with no
small reluctance that I left the Messrs. Thomson.  They were
first-class practical men, and had throughout shown me every kindness
and consideration.  But a managership was not to be had every day; and
being the next step to the position of a master, I could not neglect
the opportunity for advancement which now offered itself.

Before leaving Glasgow, however, I found that it would be necessary to
have a new angle and plate furnace provided for the works on the Tyne.
Now, the best man in Glasgow for building these important requisites
for shipbuilding work was scarcely ever sober; but by watching and
coaxing him, and by a liberal supply of Glenlivat afterwards, I
contrived to lay down on paper, from his directions, what he considered
to be the best class of furnace; and by the aid of this I was
afterwards enabled to construct what proved to be the best furnace on
the Tyne.

To return to my education in shipbuilding.  My early efforts in
ship-draughting at Stephensons' were further developed and matured at
Thomsons' on the Clyde.  Models and drawings were more carefully worked
out on the 1/4-in. scale than heretofore.  The stern frames were laid
off and put up at once correctly, which before had been first shaped by
full-sized wooden moulds.  I also contrived a mode of quickly and
correctly laying off the frame-lines on a model, by laying it on a
plane surface, and then, with a rectangular block traversing it--a
pencil in a suitable holder being readily applied over the curved
surface. This method is now in general use.

Even at that time, competition as regards speed in the Clyde steamers
was very keen.  Foremost among the competitors was the late Mr. David
Hutchinson, who, though delighted with the Mountaineer, built by the
Thomsons in 1853, did not hesitate to have her lengthened forward to
make her sharper, so as to secure her ascendency in speed during the
ensuing season.  The results were satisfactory; and his steamers grew
and grew, until they developed into the celebrated Iona and Cambria,
which were in later years built for him by the same firm.  I may
mention that the Cunard screw steamer Jura was the last heavy job with
which I was connected while at Thomsons'.

I then proceeded to the Tyne, to superintend the building of ships and
marine boilers.  The shipbuilding yard was at St. Peter's, about two
and a-half miles below Newcastle.  I found the work, as practised
there, rough and ready; but by steady attention to all the details, and
by careful inspection when passing the "piece-work" (a practice much in
vogue there, but which I discouraged), I contrived to raise the
standard of excellence, without a corresponding increase of price.  My
object was to raise the quality of the work turned out; and, as we had
orders from the Russian Government, from China, and the Continent, as
well as from shipowners at home, I observed that quality was a very
important element in all commercial success. My master, Mr. Thomas
Toward, was in declining health; and, being desirous of spending his
winters abroad, I was consequently left in full charge of the works.
But as there did not appear to be a satisfactory prospect, under the
circumstances, for any material development of the business, a trifling
circumstance arose, which again changed the course of my career.

An advertisement appeared in the papers for a manager to conduct a
shipbuilding yard in Belfast.  I made inquiries as to the situation,
and  eventually applied for it.  I was appointed, and entered upon my
duties there at Christmas, 1854.  The yard was a much larger one than
that on the Tyne, and was capable of great expansion.  It was situated
on what was then well known as the Queen's Island; but now, like the
Isle of Dogs, it has been attached by reclamation.  The yard, about
four acres in extent, was held by lease from the Belfast Harbour
Commissioners.  It was well placed, alongside a fine patent slip, with
clear frontage, allowing of the largest ships being freely launched.
Indeed, the first ship built there, the Mary Stenhouse, had only just
been completed and launched by Messrs. Robert Hickson and Co., then the
proprietors of the undertaking.  They were also the owners of the Eliza
Street Iron Works, Belfast, which were started to work up old iron
materials.  But as the works were found to be unremunerative, they were
shortly afterwards closed.

On my entering the shipbuilding yard I found that the firm had an order
for two large sailing ships.  One of these was partly in frame; and I
at once tackled with it and the men.  Mr. Hickson, the acting partner,
not being practically acquainted with the business, the whole
proceeding connected with the building of the ships devolved upon me.
I had been engaged to supersede a manager summarily dismissed.
Although he had not given satisfaction to his employers, he was a great
favourite with the men.  Accordingly, my appearance as manager in his
stead was not very agreeable to the employed.  On inquiry I found that
the rate of wages paid was above the usual value, whilst the quantity
as well as quality of the work done were below the standard.  I
proceeded to rectify these defects, by paying the ordinary rate of
wages, and then by raising the quality of the work done.  I was met by
the usual method--a strike.  The men turned out.  They were abetted by
the former manager; and the leading hands hung about the town
unemployed, in the hope of my throwing up the post in disgust.

But, nothing daunted, I went repeatedly over to the Clyde for the
purpose of enlisting fresh hands.  When I brought them over, however,
in batches, there was the greatest difficulty in inducing them to work.
They were intimidated, or enticed, or feasted, and sent home again.
The late manager had also taken a yard on the other side of the river,
and actually commenced to build a ship, employing some of his old
comrades; but beyond laying the keel, little more was ever done.  A few
months after my arrival, my firm had to arrange with its creditors,
whilst I, pending the settlement, had myself to guarantee the wages to
a few of the leading hands, whom I had only just succeeded in gathering
together.  In this dilemma, an old friend, a foreman on the Clyde, came
over to Belfast to see me.  After hearing my story, and considering the
difficulties I had to encounter, he advised me at once to "throw up the
job!"  My reply was, that "having mounted a restive horse, I would ride
him into the stable."

Notwithstanding the advice of my friend, I held on.  The comparatively
few men in the works, as well as those out, no doubt observed my
determination.  The obstacles were no doubt great; the financial
difficulties were extreme; and yet there was a prospect of profit from
the work in hand, provided only the men could be induced to settle
steadily down to their ordinary employment.  I gradually gathered
together a number of steady workmen, and appointed suitable foremen.  I
obtained a considerable accession of strength from Newcastle.  On the
death of Mr. Toward, his head foreman, Mr. William Hanston, with a
number of the leading hands, joined me.  From that time forward the
works went on apace; and we finished the ships in hand to the perfect
satisfaction of the owners.

Orders were obtained for several large sailing ships as well as screw
vessels.  We lifted and repaired wrecked ships, to the material
advantage of Mr. Hickson, then the sole representative of the firm.
After three years thus engaged, I resolved to start somewhere as a
shipbuilder on my own account.  I made inquiries at Garston,
Birkenhead, and other places.  When Mr. Hickson heard of my intentions,
he said he had no wish to carry on the concern after I left, and made a
satisfactory proposal for the sale to me of his holding of the Queen's
Island Yard.  So I agreed to the proposed arrangement.  The transfer
and the purchase were soon completed, through the kind assistance of my
old and esteemed friend Mr. G. G. Schwabe, of Liverpool; whose nephew,
Mr. G. W. Wolff, had been with me for a few months as my private
assistant.

It was necessary, however, before commencing for myself, that I should
assist Mr. Hickson in finishing off the remaining vessels in hand, as
well as to look out for orders on my own account. Fortunately, I had
not long to wait; for it had so happened that my introduction to the
Messrs. Thomson of Glasgow had been made through the instrumentality of
my good friend Mr. Schwabe, who induced Mr. James Bibby (of J. Bibby,
Sons & Co., Liverpool) to furnish me with the necessary letter.  While
in Glasgow, I had endeavoured to assist the Messrs. Bibby in the
purchase of a steamer;  so I was now intrusted by them with the
building of three screw steamers the Venetian, Sicilian, and Syrian,
each 270 feet long, by 34 feet beam, and 22 feet 9 inches hold; and
contracted with Macnab and Co., Greenock, to supply the requisite
steam-engines.

This was considered a large order in those days.  It required many
additions to the machinery, plant, and tools of the yard.  I invited
Mr. Wolff, then away in the Mediterranean as engineer of a steamer, to
return and take charge of the drawing office.  Mr. Wolff had served his
apprenticeship with Messrs. Joseph Whitworth and Co., of Manchester,
and was a most able man, thoroughly competent for the work.  Everything
went on prosperously; and, in the midst of all my engagements, I found
time to woo and win the hand of Miss Rosa Wann, of Vermont, Belfast, to
whom I was married on the 26th of January, 1860, and by her great
energy, soundness of judgment, and cleverness in organization, I was
soon relieved from all sources of care and anxiety, excepting those
connected with business.

The steamers were completed in the course of the following year,
doubtless to the satisfaction of the owners, for their delivery was
immediately followed by an order for two larger vessels.  As I required
frequently to go from home, and as the works must be carefully attended
to during my absence, on the 1st of January, 1862, I took Mr. Wolff in
as a partner; and the firm has since continued under the name of
Harland and Wolff.  I may here add that I have throughout received the
most able advice and assistance from my excellent friend and partner,
and that we have together been enabled to found an entirely new branch
of industry in Belfast.

It is necessary for me here to refer back a little to a screw steamer
which was built on the Clyde for Bibby and Co. by Mr. John Read, and
engined by J. and G. Thomson while I was with them.  That steamer was
called the Tiber.  She was looked upon as of an extreme length, being
235 feet, in proportion to her beam, which was 29 feet.  Serious
misgivings were thrown out as to whether she would ever stand a heavy
sea.  Vessels of such proportions were thought to be crank, and even
dangerous. Nevertheless, she seemed to my mind a great success.  From
that time, I began to think and work out the advantages and
disadvantages of such a vessel, from an owner's as well as from a
builder's point of view.  The result was greatly in favour of the
owner, though entailing difficulties in construction as regards the
builder.  These difficulties, however.  I thought might easily be
overcome.

In the first steamers ordered of me by the Messrs. Bibby, I thought it
more prudent to simply build to the dimensions furnished, although they
were even longer than usual.  But, prior to the precise dimensions
being fixed for the second order, I with confidence proposed my theory
of the greater carrying power and accommodation, both for cargo and
passengers, that would be gained by constructing the new vessels of
increased length, without any increase of beam.  I conceived that they
would show improved qualities in a sea-way, and that, notwithstanding
the increased accommodation, the same speed with the same power would
be obtained, by only a slight increase in the first cost.  The result
was, that I was allowed to settle the dimensions; and the following
were then decided on: Length, 310 feet; beam, 34 feet; depth of hold,
24 feet 9 inches; all of which were fully compensated for by making the
upper deck entirely of iron.  In this way, the hull of the ship was
converted into a box girder of immensely increased strength, and was, I
believe, the first ocean steamer ever so constructed.  The rig too was
unique.  The four masts were made in one continuous length, with
fore-and-aft sails, but no yards,--thereby reducing the number of hands
necessary to work them.  And the steam winches were so arranged as to
be serviceable for all the heavy hauls, as well as for the rapid
handling of the cargo.

In the introduction of so many novelties, I was well supported by Mr.
F. Leyland, the junior partner of Messrs. Bibby's firm, and by the
intelligent and practical experience of Captain Birch, the overlooker,
and Captain George Wakeham, the Commodore of the company.  Unsuccessful
attempts had been made many years before to condense the steam from the
engines by passing it into variously formed chambers, tubes, &c., to be
there condensed by surfaces kept cold by the circulation of sea-water
round them, so as to preserve the pure water and return it to the
boilers free of salt.  In this way, "salting up" was avoided, and a
considerable saving of fuel and expenses in repairs was effected.

Mr. Spencer had patented an improvement on Hall's method of surface
condensation, by introducing indiarubber rings at each end of the
tubes.  This had been tried as an experiment on shore, and we advised
that it should be adopted in one of Messrs. Bibby's smallest steamers,
the Frankfort.  The results were found perfectly satisfactory.  Some 20
per cent. of fuel was saved; and, after the patent right had been
bought, the method was adopted in all the vessels of the company.

When these new ships were first seen at Liverpool, the "old salts" held
up their hands.  They were too long! they were too sharp! they would
break their backs!  They might, indeed, get out of the Mersey, but they
would never get back!  The ships, however, sailed; and they made rapid
and prosperous voyages to and from the Mediterranean.  They fulfilled
all the promises which had been made.  They proved the advantages of
our new build of ships; and the owners were perfectly satisfied with
their superior strength, speed, and accommodation.  The Bibbys were
wise men in their day and generation.  They did not stop, but went on
ordering more ships.  After the Grecian and the Italian had made two or
three voyages to Alexandria, they sent us an order for three more
vessels.  By our advice, they were made twenty feet longer than the
previous ones, though of no greater beam; in other respects, they were
almost identical.  This was too much for "Jack."  "What!" he exclaimed,
"more Bibby's coffins?"  Yes, more and more; and in the course of time,
most shipowners followed our example.

To a young firm, a repetition of orders like these was a great
advantage,--not only because of the novel design of the ships, but also
because of their constructive details.  We did our best to fit up the
Egyptian, Dalmatian, and Arabian, as first-rate vessels.  Those engaged
in the Mediterranean trade finding them to be serious rivals, partly
because of the great cargos which they carried, but principally from
the regularity with which they made their voyages with such
surprisingly small consumption of coal.  They were not, however, what
"Jack" had been accustomed to consider "dry ships."  The ship built
Dutchman fashion, with her bluff ends, is the driest of all ships, but
the least steady, because she rises to every sea.  But the new ships,
because of their length and sharpness, precluded this; for, though they
rose sufficiently to an approaching wave for all purposes of safety,
they often went through the crest of it, and, though shipping a little
water, it was not only easier for the vessel, but the shortest road.

Nature seems to have furnished us with the finest design for a vessel
in the form of the fish: it presents such fine lines--is so clean, so
true, and so rapid in its movements.  The ship, however, must float;
and to hit upon the happy medium of velocity and stability seems to me
the art and mystery of shipbuilding. In order to give large carrying
capacity, we gave flatness of bottom and squareness of bilge.  This
became known in Liverpool as the "Belfast bottom;" and it has been
generally adopted.  This form not only serves to give stability, but
also increases the carrying power without lessening the speed.

While Sailor Jack and our many commercial rivals stood aghast and
wondered, our friends gave us yet another order for a still longer
ship, with still the same beam and power.  The vessel was named the
Persian; she was 360 feet long, 34 feet beam, 24 feet 9 inches hold.
More cargo was thus carried, at higher speed.  It was only a further
development of the fish form of structure. Venice was an important port
to call at.  The channel was difficult to navigate, and the Venetian
class (270 feet long) was supposed to be the extreme length that could
be handled here. But what with the straight stem,--by cutting the
forefoot away, and by the introduction of powerful steering-gear,
worked amidships,--the captain was able to navigate the Persian, 90
feet longer than the Venetian, with much less anxiety and inconvenience.

Until the building of the Persian, we had taken great pride in the
modelling and finish of the old style of cutwater and figurehead, with
bowsprit and jib-boom; but in urging the advantages of greater length
of hull, we were met by the fact of its being simply impossible in
certain docks to swing vessels of any greater length than those already
constructed.  Not to be beaten, we proposed to do away with all these
overhanging encumbrances, and to adopt a perpendicular stem.  In this
way the hull might be made so much longer; and this was, I believe, the
first occasion of its being adopted in this country in the case of an
ocean steamer; though the once celebrated Collins Line of paddle
steamers had, I believe, such stems.  The iron decks, iron bulwarks,
and iron rails, were all found very serviceable in our later vessels,
there being no leaking, no caulking of deck-planks or waterways, nor
any consequent damaging of cargo.  Having found it impossible to
combine satisfactorily wood with iron, each being so differently
affected by temperature and moisture, I secured some of these novelties
of construction in a patent, by which filling in the spaces between
frames, &c., with Portland cement, instead of chocks of wood, and
covering the iron plates with cement and tiles, came into practice, and
this has since come into very general use.

The Tiber, already referred to, was 235 feet in length when first
constructed by Read, of Glasgow, and was then thought too long; but she
was now placed in our hands to be lengthened 39 feet, as well as to
have an iron deck added, both of which greatly improved her.  We also
lengthened the Messrs. Bibby's Calpe--also built by Messrs. Thomson
while I was there--by no less than 93 feet.  The advantage of
lengthening ships, retaining the same beam and power, having become
generally recognised, we were in trusted by the Cunard Company to
lengthen the Hecla, Olympus, Atlas, and Marathon, each by 63 feet.  The
Royal Consort P.S., which had been lengthened first at Liverpool, was
again lengthened by us at Belfast.

The success of all this heavy work, executed for successful owners, put
a sort of backbone into the Belfast shipbuilding yard.  While other
concerns were slack, we were either lengthening or building steamers as
well as sailing-ships for firms in Liverpool, London, and Belfast.
Many acres of ground were added to the works.  The Harbour
Commissioners had now made a fine new graving-dock, and connected the
Queen's Island with the mainland.  The yard, thus improved and
extended, was surveyed by the Admiralty, and placed on the first-class
list.  We afterwards built for the Government the gun vessels Lynx and
Algerine, as well as the store and torpedo ship Hecla, of 3360 tons.

The Suez Canal being now open, our friends the Messrs. Bibby gave us an
order for three steamers of very large tonnage, capable of being
adapted for trade with the antipodes if necessary.  In these new
vessels there was no retrograde step as regards length, for they were
390 feet keel by 37 feet beam, square-rigged on three of the masts,
with the yards for the first time fitted on travellers, as to enable
them to be readily sent down; thus forming a unique combination of big
fore-and-aft sails, with handy square sails.  These ships were named
the Istrian, Iberian, and Illyrian, and in 1868 they went to sea; soon
after to be followed by three more ships--the Bavarian, Bohemian, and
Bulgarian--in most respects the same, though ten feet longer, with the
same beam.  They were first placed in the Mediterranean trade, but were
afterwards transferred to the Liverpool and Boston trade, for cattle
and emigrants.  These, with three smaller steamers for the Spanish
cattle trade, and two larger steamers for other trades, made together
twenty steam-vessels constructed for the Messrs. John Bibby, Sons, &
Co.; and it was a matter of congratulation that, after a great deal of
heavy and constant work, not one of them had exhibited the slightest
indication of weakness,--all continuing in first-rate working order.

The speedy and economic working of the Belfast steamers, compared with
those of the ordinary type, having now become well known, a scheme was
set on foot in 1869 for employing similar vessels, though of larger
size, for passenger and goods accommodation between England and
America.  Mr. T. H. Ismay, of Liverpool, the spirited shipowner, then
formed, in conjunction with the late Mr. G. H. Fletcher, the Oceanic
Steam Navigation Company, Limited; and we were commissioned by them to
build six large Transatlantic steamers, capable of carrying a heavy
cargo of goods, as well as a full complement of cabin and steerage
passengers, between Liverpool and New York, at a speed equal, if not
superior, to that of the Cunard and Inman lines.  The vessels were to
be longer than any we had yet constructed, being 420 feet keel and 41
feet beam, with 32 feet hold.

This was a great opportunity, and we eagerly embraced it.  The works
were now up to the mark in point of extent and appliances. The men in
our employment were mostly of our own training: the foremen had been
promoted from the ranks; the manager, Mr. W. H. Wilson, and the head
draughtsman, Mr. W. J. Pirrie (since become partners), having, as
pupils, worked up through all the departments, and ultimately won their
honourable and responsible positions by dint of merit only--by
character, perseverance, and ability.  We were therefore in a position
to take up an important contract of this kind, and to work it out with
heart and soul.