As everything in the way of saving of fuel was of first-rate
importance, we devoted ourselves to that branch of economic working.
It was necessary that buoyancy or space should be left for cargo, at
the same time that increased speed should be secured, with as little
consumption of coal as possible.  The Messrs. Elder and Co., of
Glasgow, had made great strides in this direction with the paddle
steam-engines which they had constructed for the Pacific Company on the
compound principle. They had also introduced them on some of their
screw steamers, with more or less success.  Others were trying the same
principle in various forms, by the use of high-pressure cylinders, and
so on; the form of the boilers being varied according to circumstances,
for the proper economy of fuel.  The first thing absolutely wanted was,
perfectly reliable information as to the actual state of the compound
engine and boiler up to the date of our inquiry.  To ascertain the
facts by experience, we dispatched Mr. Alexander Wilson, younger
brother of the manager who had been formerly a pupil of Messrs. Macnab
and Co., of Greenock, and was thoroughly able for the work--to make a
number of voyages in steam vessels fitted with the best examples of
compound engines.

The result of this careful inquiry was the design of the machinery and
boilers of the Oceanic and five sister-ships.  They were constructed on
the vertical overhead "tandem" type, with five-feet stroke (at that
time thought excessive), oval single-ended transverse boilers, with a
working pressure of sixty pounds.  We contracted with Messrs. Maudslay,
Sons, and Field, of London, for three of these sets, and with Messrs.
George Forrester and Co., of Liverpool, for the other three; and as we
found we could build the six vessels in the same time as the machinery
was being constructed; and, as all this machinery had to be conveyed to
Belfast to be there fitted on board, whilst the vessels were being
otherwise finished, we built a little screw-steamer, the Camel, of
extra strength, with very big hatchways, to receive these large masses
of iron; and this, in course of time, was found to work with great
advantage; until eventually we constructed our own machinery.

We were most fortunate in the type of engine we had fixed upon, for it
proved both economical and serviceable in all ways; and, with but
slight modifications, we repeated it in the many subsequent vessels
which we built for the White Star Company. Another feature of novelty
in these vessels consisted in placing the first-class accommodation
amidships, with the third-class aft and forward.  In all previous ocean
steamers, the cabin passengers had been berthed near the stern, where
the heaving motion of the vessel was far greater than in the centre,
and where that most disagreeable vibration inseparable from proximity
to the propeller was ever present.  The unappetising smells from the
galley were also avoided.  And last, but not least, a commodious
smoking-saloon was fitted up amidships, contrasting most favourably
with the scanty accommodation provided in other vessels.  The saloon,
too, presented the novelty of extending the full width of the vessel,
and was lighted from each side. Electric bells were for the first time
fitted on board ship.  The saloon and entire range of cabins were
lighted by gas, made on board, though this has since given place to the
incandescent electric light.  A fine promenade deck was provided over
the saloon, which was accessible from below in all weathers by the
grand staircase.

These, and other arrangements, greatly promoted the comfort and
convenience of the cabin passengers; while those in the steerage found
great improvements in convenience, sanitation, and accommodation.
"Jack" had his forecastle well ventilated and lighted, and a
turtle-back over his head when on deck, with winches to haul for him,
and a steam-engine to work the wheel; while the engineers and firemen
berthed as near their work as possible, never needing to wet a jacket
or miss a meal.  In short, for the first time perhaps, ocean-voyaging,
even in the North Atlantic, was made not only less tedious and dreadful
to all, but was rendered enjoyable and even delightful to many. Before
the Oceanic, the  pioneer of the new line, was even launched, rival
companies had already  consigned her to the deepest place in the ocean.
Her first appearance in Liverpool was therefore regarded with much
interest.  Mr. Ismay, during the construction of the vessel, took every
pains to suggest improvements and arrangements with a view to the
comfort and convenience of the travelling public.  He accompanied the
vessel on her first voyage to New York in March, 1871, under command of
Captain, now Sir Digby Murray, Brt.  Although severe weather was
experienced, the ship made a splendid voyage, with a heavy cargo of
goods and passengers.  The Oceanic thus started the Transatlantic
traffic of the Company, with the house-flag of the White Star proudly
flying on the main.

It may be mentioned that the speed of the Oceanic was at least a knot
faster per hour than had been heretofore accomplished across the
Atlantic.  The motion of the vessel was easy, without any indication of
weakness or straining, even in the heaviest weather.  The only
inducement to slow was when going head to it (which often meant head
through it), to avoid the inconvenience of shipping a heavy body of
"green sea" on deck forward.  A turtle-back was therefore provided to
throw it off, which proved so satisfactory, as it had done on the
Holyhead and Kingstown boats, that all the subsequent vessels were
similarly constructed.  Thus, then, as with the machinery, so was the
hull of the Oceanic, a type of the succeeding vessels, which after
intervals of a few months took up their stations on the Transatlantic
line.

Having often observed, when at sea in heavy weather, how the pitching
of the vessel caused the weights on the safety-valves to act
irregularly, thus letting puffs of steam escape at every heave, and as
high pressure steam was too valuable a commodity to be so wasted, we
determined to try direct-acting spiral springs, similar to those used
in locomotives, in connection with the compound engine.  But as no such
experiment was possible in any vessels requiring the Board of Trade
certificate, the alternative of using the Camel as an experimental
vessel was adopted.  The spiral springs were accordingly fitted upon
the boiler of that vessel, and with such a satisfactory result that the
Board of Trade allowed the use of the same contrivance on all the
boilers of the Oceanic and every subsequent steamer, and the
contrivance has now come into general use.

It would be too tedious to mention in detail the other ships built for
the White Star line.  The Adriatic and Celtic were made 17 feet 6
inches longer than the Oceanic, and a little sharper, being 437 feet 6
inches keel, 41 feet beam, and 32 feet hold. The success of the Company
had been so great under the able management of Ismay, Imrie and Co.,
and they had secured so large a share of the passengers and cargo, as
well as of the mails passing between Liverpool and New York, that it
was found necessary to build two still larger and faster vessels--the
Britannic and Germanic: these were 455 feet in length; 45 feet in beam;
and of 5000 indicated horse-power.  The Britannic was in the first
instance constructed with the propeller fitted to work below the line
of keel when in deep water, by which means the "racing" of the engines
was avoided.  When approaching shallow water, the propeller was raised
by steam-power to the ordinary position without any necessity for
stopping the engines during the operation.  Although there was an
increase of speed by this means through the uniform revolutions of the
machinery in the heaviest sea, yet there was an objectionable amount of
vibration at certain parts of the vessel, so that we found it necessary
to return to the ordinary fixed propeller, working in the line of
direction of the vessel.  Comfort at sea is of even more importance
than speed; and although we had succeeded in four small steamers
working on the new principle, it was found better to continue in the
larger ships to resort to the established modes of propulsion.  It may
happen that at some future period the new method may yet be adopted
with complete success.

Meanwhile competition went on with other companies.  Monopoly cannot
exist between England and America.  Our plans were followed; and
sharper boats and heavier power became the rule of the day.  But
increase of horse-power of engines means increase of heating surface
and largely increased boilers, when we reach the vanishing point of
profit, after which there is nothing left but speed and expense.  It
may be possible to fill a ship with boilers, and to save a few hours in
the passage from Liverpool to New York by a tremendous expenditure of
coal; but whether that will answer the purpose of any body of
shareholders must be left for the future to determine.

"Brute force" may be still further employed.  It is quite possible that
recent "large strides" towards a more speedy transit across the
Atlantic may have been made "in the dark."

The last ships we have constructed for Ismay, Imrie and Co. have been
of comparatively moderate dimensions and power--the Arabic and Coptic,
430 feet long; and the Ionic and Boric, 440 feet long, all of 2700
indicated horse-power.  These are large cargo steamers, with a moderate
amount of saloon accommodation, and a large space for emigrants.  Some
of these are now engaged in crossing the Pacific, whilst others are
engaged in the line from London to New Zealand; the latter being
specially fitted up for carrying frozen meat.

To return to the operations of the Belfast shipbuilding yard.  A
serious accident occurred in the autumn of 1867 to the mail
paddle-steamer the Wolf, belonging to the Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow.
When passing out of the Lough, about eight miles from Belfast, she was
run into by another steamer.  She was cut down and sank, and there she
lay in about seven fathoms of water; the top of her funnel and masts
being only visible at low tide.  She was in a dangerous position for
all vessels navigating the entrance to the port, and it was necessary
that she should be removed, either by dynamite, gunpowder, or some
other process. Divers were sent down to examine the ship, and the
injury done to her being found to be slight, the owners conferred with
us as to the possibility of lifting her and bringing her into port.
Though such a process had never before been accomplished, yet knowing
her structure well, and finding that we might rely upon smooth water
for about a week or two in summer, we determined to do what we could to
lift the sunken vessel to the surface.

We calculated the probable weight of the vessel, and had a number of
air-tanks expressly built for her floatation.  These were secured to
the ship with chains and hooks, the latter being inserted through the
side lights in her sheer strake.  Early in the following summer
everything was ready.  The air-tanks were prepared and rafted together.
Powerful screws were attached to each chain, with hand-pumps for
emptying the tanks, together with a steam tender fitted with cooking
appliances, berths and stores, for all hands engaged in the enterprise.
We succeeded in attaching the hooks and chains by means of divers; the
chains being ready coiled on deck.  But the weather, which before
seemed to be settled, now gave way.  No sooner had we got the pair of
big tanks secured to the after body, than a fierce north-north-easterly
gale set in, and we had to run for it, leaving the tanks partly filled,
in order to lessen the strain on everything.

When the gale had settled, we returned again, and found that no harm
had been done.  The remainder of the hooks were properly attached to
the rest of the tanks, the chains were screwed tightly up, and the
tanks were pumped clear.  Then the tide rose; and before high water we
had the great satisfaction of getting the body of the vessel under
weigh, and towing her about a cable's length from her old bed.  At each
tide's work she was lifted higher and higher, and towed into shallower
water towards Belfast; until at length we had her, after eight days,
safely in the harbour, ready to enter the graving dock,--not more
ready, however, than we all were for our beds, for we had neither
undressed nor shaved during that anxious time.  Indeed, our friends
scarcely recognised us on our return home.

The result of the enterprise was this.  The clean cut made into the bow
of the ship by the collision was soon repaired.  The crop of oysters
with which she was incrusted gave place to the scraper and the
paintbrush.  The Wolf came out of the dock to the satisfaction both of
the owners and underwriters; and she was soon "ready for the road,"
nothing the worse for her ten months' immersion.[2]

Meanwhile the building of new iron ships went on in the Queen's Island.
We were employed by another Liverpool Company--the British Shipowners'
Company, Limited--to supply some large steamers.  The British Empire,
of 3361 gross tonnage, was the same class of vessel as those of the
White Star line, but fuller, being intended for cargo.  Though
originally intended for the Eastern trade, this vessel was eventually
placed on the Liverpool and Philadelphia line; and her working proved
so satisfactory that five more vessels were ordered like her, which
were chartered to the American Company.

The Liverpool agents, Messrs. Richardson, Spence, and Co., having
purchased the Cunard steamer Russia, sent her over to us to be
lengthened 70 feet, and entirely refitted--another proof of the rapid
change which owners of merchant ships now found it necessary to adopt
in view of the requirements of modern traffic.

Another Liverpool firm, the Messrs. T. and J. Brocklebank, of
world-wide repute for their fine East Indiamen, having given up
building for themselves at their yard at Whitehaven, commissioned us to
build for them the Alexandria, and Baroda, which were shortly followed
by the Candahar and Tenasserim.  And continuing to have a faith in the
future of big iron sailing ships, they further employed us to build for
them two of yet greater tonnage, the Belfast and the Majestic.

Indeed, there is a future for sailing ships, notwithstanding the recent
development of steam power.  Sailing ships can still hold their own,
especially in the transport of heavy merchandise for great distances.
They can be built more cheaply than steamers; they can be worked more
economically, because they require no expenditure on coal, nor on wages
of engineers; besides, the space occupied in steamers by machinery is
entirely occupied by merchandise, all of which pays its quota of
freight.  Another thing may be mentioned: the telegraph enables the
fact of the sailing of a vessel, with its cargo on board, to be
communicated from Calcutta or San Francisco to Liverpool, and from that
moment the cargo becomes as marketable as if it were on the spot.
There are cases, indeed, where the freight by sailing ship is even
greater than by steamer, as the charge for warehousing at home is
saved, and in the meantime the cargo while at sea is negotiable.

We have accordingly, during the last few years, built some of the
largest iron and steel sailing ships that have ever gone to sea. The
aim has been to give them great carrying capacity and fair speed, with
economy of working; and the use of steel, both in the hull and the
rigging, facilitates the attainment of these objects.  In 1882 and
1883, we built and launched four of these steel and iron sailing
ships--the Waiter H. Wilson, the W. J. Pirrie, the Fingal, and the Lord
Wolseley--each of nearly 3000 tons register, with four masts,--the
owners being Mr. Lawther, of Belfast; Mr. Martin, of Dublin; and the
Irish Shipowners Company.

Besides these and other sailing ships, we have built for Messrs. Ismay,
Imrie and Co. the Garfield, of 2347 registered tonnage; for Messrs.
Thomas Dixon and Son, the Lord Downshire (2322); and for Messrs.
Bullock's Bay Line, the Bay of Panama (2365).

In 1880 we took in another piece of the land reclaimed by the Belfast
Harbour Trust; and there, in close proximity to the ship-yard, we
manufacture all the machinery required for the service of the steamers
constructed by our firm.  In this way we are able to do everything
"within ourselves"; and the whole land now occupied by the works
comprises about forty acres, with ten building slips suitable for the
largest vessels.

It remains for me to mention a Belfast firm, which has done so much for
the town.  I mean the Messrs. J.P. Corry and Co., who have always been
amongst our best friends.  We built for them their first iron sailing
vessel, the Jane Porter, in 1860, and since then they have never failed
us.  They successfully established their "Star" line of sailing
clippers from London to Calcutta, all of which were built here.  They
subsequently gave us orders for yet larger vessels, in the Star of
France and the Star of Italy.  In all, we have built for that firm
eleven of their well-known "Star" ships.

We have built five ships for the Asiatic Steam Navigation Company,
Limited, each of from 1650 to 2059 tons gross; and we are now building
for them two ships, each of about 3000 tons gross.  In 1883 we launched
thirteen iron and steel vessels, of a registered tonnage of over 30,000
tons.  Out of eleven ships now building, seven are of steel.

Such is a brief and summary account of the means by which we have been
enabled to establish a new branch of industry in Belfast. It has been
accomplished simply by energy and hard work.  We have been
well-supported by the skilled labour of our artisans; we have been
backed by the capital and the enterprise of England; and we believe
that if all true patriots would go and do likewise, there would be
nothing to fear for the prosperity and success of Ireland.


Footnotes for Chapter XI.

[1] Although Mr. Harland took no further steps with his lifeboat, the
project seems well worthy of a fair trial.  We had lately the pleasure
of seeing the model launched and tried on the lake behind Mr. Harland's
residence at Ormiston, near Belfast.  The cylindrical lifeboat kept
perfectly water-tight, and though thrown into the water in many
different positions--sometimes tumbled in on its prow, at other times
on its back (the deck being undermost), it invariably righted itself.
The screws fore and aft worked well, and were capable of being turned
by human labour or by steam power.  Now that such large freights of
passengers are carried by ocean-going ships, it would seem necessary
that some such method should be adopted of preserving life at sea; for
ordinary lifeboats, which are so subject to destructive damage, are
often of little use in fires or shipwrecks, or other accidents on the
ocean.

[2] A full account is given in the Illustrated London News of the 21st
of October, 1868, with illustrations, of the raising of the Wolf; and
another, more scientific, is given in the Engineer of the 16th of
October, of the same year.



CHAPTER XII.

ASTRONOMERS AND STUDENTS IN HUMBLE LIFE:

A NEW CHAPTER IN THE 'PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIFFICULTIES.'

"I first learnt to read when the masons were at work in your house.  I
approached them one day, and observed that the architect used a rule
and compass, and that he made calculations. I inquired what might be
the meaning and use of these things, and I was informed that there was
a science called Arithmetic.  I purchased a book of arithmetic, and I
learned it.  I was told there was another science called Geometry; I
bought the necessary books, and I learned Geometry.  By reading, I
found there were good books in these two sciences in Latin; I bought a
dictionary, and I learned Latin.  I understood, also, that there were
good books of the same kind in French; I bought a dictionary, and I
learned French.  It seems to me that one does not need to know anything
more than the twenty-four letters to learn everything else that one
wishes."--Edmund Stone to the Duke of Argyll. ('Pursuit of Knowledge
under Difficulties.')

"The British Census proper reckons twenty-seven and a half million in
the home countries.  What makes this census important is the quality of
the units that compose it.  They are free forcible men, in a country
where life is safe, and has reached the greatest value.  They give the
bias to the current age; and that not by chance or by mass, but by
their character, and by the number of individuals among them of
personal ability."--Emerson: English Traits.

From Belfast to the Highlands of Scotland is an easy route by steamers
and railways.  While at Birnam, near Dunkeld, I was reminded of some
remarkable characters in the neighbourhood. After the publication of
the 'Scotch Naturalist' and 'Robert Dick,' I received numerous letters
informing me of many self-taught botanists and students of nature,
quite as interesting as the subjects of my memoirs.  Among others,
there was John Duncan, the botanist weaver of Aberdeen, whose
interesting life has since been done justice to by Mr. Jolly; and John
Sim of Perth, first a shepherd boy, then a soldier, and towards the
close of his life a poet and a botanist, whose life, I was told, was
"as interesting as a romance."

There was also Alexander Croall, Custodian of the Smith Institute at
Stirling, an admirable naturalist and botanist.  He was originally a
hard-working parish schoolmaster, near Montrose. During his holiday
wanderings he collected plants for his extensive herbarium.  His
accomplishments having come under the notice of the late Sir William
Hooker, he was selected by that gentleman to prepare sets of the Plants
of Braemar for the Queen and Prince Albert, which he did to their
entire satisfaction.  He gave up his school-mastership for an ill-paid
but more congenial occupation, that of Librarian to the Derby Museum
and Herbarium. Some years ago, he was appointed to his present position
of Custodian to the Smith Institute--perhaps the best provincial museum
and art gallery in Scotland.

I could not, however, enter into the history of these remarkable
persons; though I understand there is a probability of Mr. Croall
giving his scientific recollections to the world.  He has already
brought out a beautiful work, in four volumes, 'British Seaweeds,
Nature-printed;' and anything connected with his biography will be
looked forward to with interest.

Among the other persons brought to my notice, years ago, were
Astronomers in humble life.  For instance, I received a letter from
John Grierson, keeper of the Girdleness Lighthouse, near Aberdeen,
mentioning one of these persons as "an extraordinary character."
"William Ballingall," he said, "is a weaver in the town of Lower Largo,
Fifeshire; and from his early days he has made astronomy the subject of
passionate study.  I used to spend my school vacation at Largo, and
have frequently heard him expound upon his favourite subject.  I
believe that very high opinions have been expressed by scientific
gentlemen regarding Ballingall's attainments.  They were no doubt
surprised that an individual with but a very limited amount of
education, and whose hours of labour were from five in the morning
until ten or eleven at night, should be able to acquire so much
knowledge on so profound a subject.  Had he possessed a fair amount of
education, and an assortment of scientific instruments and books, the
world would have heard more about him.  Should you ever find yourself,"
my correspondent concludes, "in his neighbourhood, and have a few hours
to spare, you would have no reason to regret the time spent in his
company." I could not, however, arrange to pay the proposed visit to
Largo; but I found that I could, without inconvenience, visit another
astronomer in the neighbourhood of Dunkeld.

In January 1879 I received a letter from Sheriff Barclay, of Perth, to
the following effect:  "Knowing the deep interest you take in genius
and merit in humble ranks, I beg to state to you an extraordinary case.
John Robertson is a railway porter at Coupar Angus station.  From early
youth he has made the heavens his study.  Night after night he looks
above, and from his small earnings he has provided himself with a
telescope which cost him about 30L.  He sends notices of his
observations to the scientific journals, under the modest initials of
'J.R.' He is a great favourite with the public; and it is said that he
has made some observations in celestial phenomena not before noticed.
It does occur to me that he should have a wider field for his favourite
study.  In connection with an observatory, his services would be
invaluable."

Nearly five years had elapsed since the receipt of this letter, and I
had done nothing to put myself in communication with the Coupar Angus
astronomer.  Strange to say, his existence was again recalled to my
notice by Professor Grainger Stewart, of Edinburgh.  He said that if I
was in the neighbourhood I ought to call upon him, and that he would
receive me kindly.  His duty, he said, was to act as porter at the
station, and to shout the name of the place as the trains passed.  I
wrote to John Robertson accordingly, and received a reply stating that
he would be glad to see me, and inclosing a photograph, in which I
recognised a good, honest, sensible face, with his person inclosed in
the usual station porter's garb, "C.R. 1446."

I started from Dunkeld, and reached Coupar Angus in due time.  As I
approached the station, I heard the porter calling out, "Coupar Angus!
change here for Blairgowrie!"[1]  It was the voice of John Robertson.

I descended from the train, and addressed him at once:  after the
photograph there could be no mistaking him.  An arrangement for a
meeting was made, and he called upon me in the evening.  I invited him
to such hospitality as the inn afforded; but he would have nothing.  "I
am much obliged to you," he said; "but it always does me harm."  I knew
at once what the "it" meant.  Then he invited me to his house in
Causewayend Street.  I found his cottage clean and comfortable,
presided over by an evidently clever wife.  He took me into his
sitting-room, where I inspected his drawings of the sun-spots, made in
colour on a large scale. In all his statements he was perfectly modest
and unpretending. The following is his story, so far as I can
recollect, in his own words:--

"Yes; I certainly take a great interest in astronomy, but I have done
nothing in it worthy of notice.  I am scarcely worthy to be called a
day labourer in the science.  I am very well known hereabouts,
especially to the travelling public; but I must say that they think a
great deal more of me than I deserve.

"What made me first devote my attention to the subject of astronomy?
Well, if I can trace it to one thing more than another, it was to some
evening lectures delivered by the late Dr. Dick, of Broughty Ferry, to
the men employed at the Craigs' Bleachfield Works, near Montrose, where
I then worked, about the year 1848.  Dr. Dick was an excellent
lecturer, and I listened to him with attention.  His instructions were
fully impressed upon our minds by Mr. Cooper, the teacher of the
evening school, which I attended.  After giving the young lads employed
at the works their lessons in arithmetic, he would come out with us
into the night--and it was generally late when we separated--and show
us the principal constellations, and the planets above the horizon. It
was a wonderful sight; yet we were told that these hundreds upon
hundreds of stars, as far as the eye could see, were but a mere vestige
of the creation amidst which we lived.  I got to know the names of some
of the constellations the Greater Bear, with 'the pointers' which
pointed to the Pole Star, Orion with his belt, the Twins, the Pleiades,
and other prominent objects in the heavens.  It was a source of
constant wonder and surprise.

"When I left the Bleachfield Works, I went to Inverury, to the North of
Scotland Railway, which was then in course of formation; and for many
years, being immersed in work, I thought comparatively little of
astronomy.  It remained, however, a pleasant memory.  It was only after
coming to this neighbourhood in 1854, when the railway to Blairgowrie
was under construction, that I began to read up a little, during my
leisure hours, on the subject of astronomy.  I got married the year
after, since which time I have lived in this house.

"I became a member of a reading-room club, and read all the works of
Dr. Dick that the library contained:  his 'Treatise on the Solar
System,' his 'Practical Astronomer,' and other works. There were also
some very good  popular works to which I was indebted for amusement as
well as instruction:  Chambers's 'Information for the People,'
Cassell's 'Popular Educator,' and a very interesting series of articles
in the 'Leisure Hour,' by Edwin Dunkin of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich.  These last papers were accompanied by maps of the chief
constellations, so that I had a renewed opportunity of becoming a
little better acquainted with the geography of the heavens.

"I began to have a wish for a telescope, by means of which I might be
able to see a little more than with my naked eyes.  But I found that I
could not get anything of much use, short of 20L. I could not for a
long time feel justified in spending so much money for my own personal
enjoyment.  My children were then young and dependent upon me.  They
required to attend school--for education is a thing that parents must
not neglect, with a view to the future.  However, about the year 1875,
my attention was called to a cheap instrument advertised by
Solomon--what he called his '5L. telescope.' I purchased one, and it
tantalised me; for the power of the instrument was such as to teach me
nothing of the surface of the planets.  After using it for about two
years, I sold it to a student, and then found that I had accumulated
enough savings to enable me to buy my present instrument.  Will you
come into the next room and look at it?"

I went accordingly into the adjoining room, and looked at the new
telescope.  It was taken from its case, put upon its tripod, and looked
in beautiful condition.  It is a refractor, made by Cooke and Sons of
York.  The object glass is three inches; the focal length forty-three
inches; and the telescope, when drawn out, with the pancratic eyepiece
attached, is about four feet.  It was made after Mr. Robertson's
directions, and is a sort of combination of instruments.

"Even that instrument," he proceeded, "good as it is for the money,
tantalises me yet.  A look through a fixed equatorial, such as every
large observatory is furnished with is a glorious view.  I shall never
forget the sight that I got when at Dunecht Observatory, to which I was
invited through the kindness of Dr. Copeland, the Earl of Crawford and
Balcarres' principal astronomer.

"You ask me what I have done in astronomical research?  I am sorry to
say I have been able to do little except to gratify my own curiosity;
and even then, as I say, I have been much tantalised.  I have watched
the spots on the sun from day to day through obscured glasses, since
the year 1878, and made many drawings of them.  Mr. Rand Capron, the
astronomer, of Guildown, Guildford, desired to see these drawings, and
after expressing his satisfaction with them, he sent them to Mr.
Christie, Astronomer Royal, Greenwich.  Although photographs of the
solar surface were preferred, Mr. Capron thought that my sketches might
supply gaps in the partially cloudy days, as well as details which
might not appear on the photographic plates.  I received a very kind
letter from Mr. Christie, in which he said that it would be very
difficult to make the results obtained from drawings, however accurate,
at all comparable with those derived from photographs; especially as
regards the accurate size of the spots as compared with the diameter of
the sun.  And no doubt he is right.

"What, do I suppose, is the cause of these spots in the sun? Well, that
is a very difficult question to answer.  Changes are constantly going
on at the sun's surface, or, I may rather say, in the sun's interior,
and making themselves apparent at the surface.  Sometimes they go on
with enormous activity; at other times they are more quiet.  They recur
alternately in periods of seven or eight weeks, while these again are
also subject to a period of about eleven years--that is, the short
recurring outbursts go on for some years, when they attain a maximum,
from which they go on decreasing.  I may say that we are now (August
1883) at, or very near, a maximum epoch.  There is no doubt that this
period has an intimate connection with our auroral displays; but I
don't think that the influence sun-spots have on light or heat is
perceptible.  Whatever influence they possess would be felt alike on
the whole terrestrial globe.  We have wet, dry, cold, and warm years,
but they are never general.  The kind of season which prevails in one
country is often quite reversed in another perhaps in the adjacent one.
Not so with our auroral displays.  They are universal on both sides of
the globe; and from pole to pole the magnetic needle trembles during
their continuance.  Some authorities are of opinion that these
eleven-year cycles are subject to a larger cycle, but sun-spot
observations have not existed long enough to determine this point.  For
myself, I have a great difficulty in forming an opinion.  I have very
little doubt that the spots are depressions on the surface of the sun.
This is more apparent when the spot is on the limb.  I have often seen
the edge very rugged and uneven when groups of large spots were about
to come round on the east side.  I have communicated some of my
observations to 'The Observatory,' the monthly review of astronomy,
edited by Mr. Christie, now Astronomer Royal,[2] as well as to The
Scotsmam, and some of our local papers.[3]

"I have also taken up the observation of variable stars in a limited
portion of the heavens.  That, and 'hunting for comets' is about all
the real astronomical work that an amateur can do nowadays in our
climate, with a three-inch telescope.  I am greatly indebted to the
Earl of Crawford and Balcarres, who regularly sends me circulars of all
astronomical discoveries, both in this and foreign countries.  I will
give an instance of the usefulness of these circulars.  On the morning
of the 4th of October, 1880, a comet was discovered by Hartwig, of
Strasburg, in the constellation of Corona.  He telegraphed it to
Dunecht Observatory, fifteen miles from Aberdeen.  The circulars
announcing the discovery were printed and despatched by post to various
astronomers.  My circular reached me by 7 P.M., and, the night being
favourable, I directed my telescope upon the part of the heavens
indicated, and found the comet almost at once--that is, within fifteen
hours of the date of its discovery at Strasburg.

"In April, 1878, a large meteor was observed in broad daylight, passing
from south to north, and falling it was supposed, about twenty miles
south of Ballater.  Mr. A. S. Herschel, Professor of Physics in the
College of Science, 'Newcastle-on-Tyne, published a letter in The
Scotsmam, intimating his desire to be informed of the particulars of
the meteor's flight by those who had seen it. As I was one of those who
had observed the splendid meteor flash northwards almost under the face
of the bright sun (at 10.25 A.M.), I sent the Professor a full account
of what I had seen, for which he professed his strong obligations.
This led to a very pleasant correspondence with Professor Herschel.
After this, I devoted considerable attention to meteors, and sent many
contributions to 'The Observatory' on the subject.[4]

"You ask me what are the hours at which I make my observations? I am
due at the railway station at six in the morning, and I leave at six in
the evening; but I have two hours during the day for meals and rest.
Sometimes I get a glance at the heavens in the winter mornings when the
sky is clear, hunting for comets. My observations on the sun are
usually made twice a day during my meal hours, or in the early morning
or late at evening in summer, while the sun is visible.  Yes, you are
right; I try and make the best use of my time.  It is much too short
for all that I propose to do.  My evenings are my own.  When the
heavens are clear, I watch them; when obscured, there are my books and
letters.

"Dr. Alexander Brown, of Arbroath, is one of my correspondents. I have
sent him my drawings of the rings of Saturn, of Jupiter's belt and
satellites.  Dr. Ralph Copeland, of Dunecht, is also a very good friend
and adviser.  Occasionally, too, I send accounts of solar disturbances,
comet a within sight, eclipses, and occultations, to the Scotsman, the
Dundee Evening Telegraph and Evening News, or to the Blairgowrie
Advertiser.  Besides, I am the local observer of meteorology, and
communicate regularly with Mr. Symons.  These things entirely fill up
my time.

"Do I intend always to remain a railway porter?  Oh, yes; I am very
comfortable! The company are very kind to me, and I hope I serve them
faithfully.  It is true Sheriff Barclay has, without my knowledge,
recommended me to several well-known astronomers as an observer.  But
at my time of life changes are not to be desired.  I am quite satisfied
to go on as I am doing.  My young people are growing up, and are
willing to work for themselves. But come, sir," he concluded, "come
into the garden, and look at the moon through my telescope."

We went into the garden accordingly, but a cloud was over the moon, and
we could not see it.  At the top of the garden was the self-registering
barometer, the pitcher to measure the rainfall, and the other apparatus
necessary to enable the "Diagram of barometer, thermometer, rain, and
wind" to be conducted, so far as Coupar Angus is concerned.  This Mr.
Robertson has done for four years past.  As the hour was late, and as I
knew that my entertainer must be up by six next morning, I took my
leave.

A man's character often exhibits itself in his amusements.  One must
have a high respect for the character of John Robertson, who looks at
the manner in which he spends his spare time.  His astronomical work is
altogether a labour of love.  It is his hobby; and the working man may
have his hobby as well as the rich.  In his case he is never less idle
than when idle.  Some may think that he is casting his bread upon the
waters, and that he may find it after many days.  But it is not with
this object that he carries on his leisure-hour pursuits.  Some have
tried--sheriff Barclay among others[5]--to obtain appointments for him
in connection with astronomical observation; others to secure
advancement for him in his own line.  But he is a man who is satisfied
with his lot--one of the rarest things on earth. Perhaps it is by
looking so much up to the heavens that he has been enabled to obtain
his portion of contentment.

Next morning I found him busy at the station, making arrangements for
the departure of the passenger train for Perth, and evidently upon the
best of terms with everybody.  And here I leave John Robertson, the
contented Coupar Angus astronomer.

Some years ago I received from my friend Mr. Nasmyth a letter of
introduction to the late Mr. Cooke of York, while the latter was still
living.  I did not present it at the time; but I now proposed to visit,
on my return homewards, the establishment which he had founded at York
for the manufacture of telescopes and other optical instruments.
Indeed, what a man may do for himself as well as for science, cannot be
better illustrated than by the life of this remarkable man.

Mr. Nasmyth says that he had an account from Cooke himself of his small
beginnings.  He was originally a shoemaker in a small country village.
Many a man has risen to distinction from a shoemaker's seat.  Bulwer,
in his 'What will He do with It?' has discussed the difference between
shoemakers and tailors.  "The one is thrown upon his own resources, the
other works in the company of his fellows:  the one thinks, the other
communicates. Cooke was a man of natural ability, and he made the best
use of his powers.  Opportunity, sooner or later, comes to nearly all
who work and wait, and are duly persevering.  Shoemaking was not found
very productive; and Cooke, being fairly educated as well as
self-educated, opened a village school.  He succeeded tolerably well.
He taught himself geometry and mathematics, and daily application made
him more perfect in his studies.  In course of time an extraordinary
ambition took possession of him: no less than the construction of a
reflecting telescope of six inches diameter.  The idea would not let
him rest until he had accomplished his purpose.  He cast and polished
the speculum with great labour; but just as he was about to finish it,
the casting broke! What was to be done?  About one-fifth had broken
away, but still there remained a large piece, which he proceeded to
grind down to a proper diameter.  His perseverance was rewarded by the
possession of a 3 1/2 inch speculum, which by his rare skill he worked
into a reflecting telescope of very good quality.

He was, however, so much annoyed by the treacherously brittle nature of
the speculum metal that he abandoned its use, and betook himself to
glass.  He found that before he could make a good achromatic telescope
it was necessary that he should calculate his curves from data
depending upon the nature of the glass.  He accordingly proceeded to
study the optical laws of refraction, in which his knowledge of
geometry and mathematics greatly helped him.  And in course of time, by
his rare and exquisite manipulative skill, he succeeded in constructing
a four-inch refractor, or achromatic telescope, of admirable defining
power.

The excellence of his first works became noised abroad. Astronomical
observers took an interest in him; and friends began to gather round
him, amongst others the late Professor Phillips and the Rev. Vernon
Harcourt, Dean of York.  Cooke received an order for a telescope like
his own; then he received other orders.  At last he gave up teaching,
and took to telescope making.  He advanced step by step; and like a
practical, thoughtful man, he invented special tools and machinery for
the purpose of grinding and polishing his glasses.  He opened a shop in
York, and established himself as a professed maker of telescopes.  He
added to this the business of a general optician, his wife attending to
the sale in the shop, while he himself attended to the workshop.

Such was the excellence of his work that the demand for his telescopes
largely increased.  They were not only better manufactured, but greatly
cheaper than those which had before been in common use.  Three of the
London makers had before possessed a monopoly of the business; but now
the trade was thrown open by the enterprise of Cooke of York.  He
proceeded to erect a complete factory--the Buckingham Street works.
His brother took charge of the grinding and polishing of the lenses,
while his sons attended to the mechanism of the workshop; but Cooke
himself was the master spirit of the whole concern. Everything that he
did was good and accurate.  His clocks were about the best that could
be made.  He carried out his clock-making business with the same zeal
that he devoted to the perfection of his achromatic telescopes.  His
work was always first-rate.  There was no scamping about it.
Everything that he did was thoroughly good and honest.  His 4 1/4-inch
equatorials are perfect gems; and his admirable achromatics, many of
them of the largest class, are known all over the world.  Altogether,
Thomas Cooke was a remarkable instance of the power of Self-Help.

Such was the story of his Life, as communicated by Mr. Nasmyth. I was
afterwards enabled, through the kind assistance of his widow, Mrs.
Cooke, whom I saw at Saltburn, in Yorkshire, to add a few particulars
to his biography.

"My husband," she said, "was the son of a working shoemaker at
Pocklington, in the East Riding.  He was born in 1807.  His father's
circumstances were so straitened that he was not able to do much for
him; but he sent him to the National school, where he received some
education.  He remained there for about two years, and then he was put
to his father's trade.  But he greatly disliked shoemaking, and longed
to get away from it.  He liked the sun, the sky, and the open air.  He
was eager to be a sailor, and, having heard of the voyages of Captain
Cook, he wished to go to sea.  He spent his spare hours in learning
navigation, that he might be a good seaman.  But when he was ready to
set out for Hull, the entreaties and tears of his mother prevailed on
him to give up the project; and then he had to consider what he should
do to maintain himself at home.

"He proceeded with his self-education, and with such small aids as he
could procure, he gathered together a good deal of knowledge.  He
thought that he might be able to teach others. Everybody liked him, for
his diligence, his application, and his good sense.  At the age of
seventeen he was employed to teach the sons of the neighbouring
farmers.  He succeeded so well that in the following year he opened a
village school at Beilby.  He went on educating himself, and learnt a
little of everything.  He next removed his school to Kirpenbeck, near
Stamford Bridge; and it was there," proceeded Mrs. Cooke, "that I got
to know him, for I was one of his pupils."

"He first learned mathematics by buying an old volume at a bookstall,
with a spare shilling.  That was before he began to teach.  He also got
odd sheets, and read other books about geometry and mathematics, before
he could buy them; for he had very little to spare.  He studied and
learnt as much as he could.

He was very anxious to get an insight into knowledge.  He studied
optics before he had any teaching.  Then he tried to turn his knowledge
to account.  While at Kirpenbeck he made his first object-glass out of
a thick tumbler bottom.  He ground the glass cleverly by hand; then he
got a piece of tin and soldered it together, and mounted the
object-glass in it so as to form a telescope.

"He next got a situation at the Rev. Mr. Shapkley's school in
Micklegate, York, where he taught mathematics.  He also taught in
ladies' schools in the city, and did what he could to make a little
income.  Our intimacy had increased, and we had arranged to get
married.  He was twenty-four, and I was nineteen, when we were happily
united.  I was then his pupil for life.

"Professor Phillips saw his first telescope, with the object-glass made
out of the thick tumbler bottom, and he was so much pleased with it
that my husband made it over to him.  But he also got an order for
another, from Mr. Gray, solicitor, more by way of encouragement than
because Mr. Gray wanted it, for he was a most kind man.  The
object-glass was of four-inch aperture, and when mounted the defining
power was found excellent.  My husband was so successful with his
telescopes that he went on from smaller to greater, and at length he
began to think of devoting himself to optics altogether.  His knowledge
of mathematics had led him on, and friends were always ready to
encourage him in his pursuits.

"During this time he had continued his teaching at the school in the
day-time; and he also taught on his own account the sons of gentlemen
in the evening: amongst others the sons of Dr. Wake and Dr. Belcomb,
both medical men.  He was only making about 100L. a year, and his
family was increasing.  It was necessary to be very economical, and I
was careful of everything.  At length my uncle Milner agreed to advance
about 100L. as a loan.  A shop was taken in Stonegate in 1836, and
provided with optical instruments.  I attended to the shop, while my
husband worked in the back premises.  To bring in a little ready money,
I also took in lodgers.

"My husband now devoted himself entirely to telescope making and
optics.  But he took in other work.  His pumps were considered
excellent; and he furnished all those used at the pump-room, Harrogate.
His clocks, telescope-driving[6] and others, were of the best.  He
commenced turret-clock making in 1852, and made many improvements in
them.  We had by that time removed to Coney Street; and in 1855 the
Buckingham Works were established, where a large number of first-rate
workmen were employed.  A place was also taken in Southampton Street,
London, in 1868, for the sale of the instruments manufactured at York."

Thus far Mrs. Cooke.  It may be added that Thomas Cooke revived the art
of making refracting telescopes in England.  Since the discovery by
Dollond, in 1758, of the relation between the refractive and dispersive
powers of different kinds of glass, and the invention by that
distinguished optician of the achromatic telescope, the manufacture of
that instrument had been confined to England, where the best flint
glass was made.  But through the short-sighted policy of the
Government, an exorbitant duty was placed upon the manufacture of flint
glass, and the English trade was almost entirely stamped out.  We had
accordingly to look to foreign countries for the further improvement of
the achromatic telescope, which Dollond had so much advanced.

A humble mechanic of Brenetz, in the Canton of Neufchatel, Switzerland,
named Guinaud, having directed his attention to the manufacture of
flint glass towards the close of last century, at length succeeded,
after persevering efforts, in producing masses of that substance
perfectly free from stain, and therefore adapted for the construction
of the object-glasses of telescopes.

Frauenhofer, the Bavarian optician, having just begun business, heard
of the wonderful success of Guinaud, and induced the Swiss mechanic to
leave Brenetz and enter into partnership with him at Munich in 1805.