This Etext was created by Joseph B. Yesselman jyselman@erols.com
Please send corrections to him and also to hart@pobox.com



Part 1 - Chapters I to V    -   1spnt10.txt
Part 2 - Chapters VI to X   -   2spnt10.txt
Part 3 - Chapters XI to XV  -   3spnt10.txt
Part 4 - Chapters XVI to XX -   4spnt10.txt



Sentence Numbers, shown thus (1), have been added by volunteer.





A Theologico-Political Treatise
Part 2 - Chapters VI to X
by Baruch Spinoza









A Theologico-Political Treatise
Part 2 - Chapters VI to X
by Baruch Spinoza




TABLE OF CONTENTS:

CHAPTER VI - Of Miracles.

Confused ideas of the vulgar on the subject.

A miracle in the sense of a contravention of natural laws an absurdity.

In the sense of an event, whose cause is unknown,
less edifying than an event better understood.

God's providence identical with the course of nature.
How Scripture miracles may be interpreted.



CHAPTER VII - Of the Interpretation of Scripture.

Current systems of interpretation erroneous.

Only true system to interpret it by itself.

Reasons why this system cannot now be carried out in its entirety.

Yet these difficulties do not interfere with our understanding
the plainest and most important passages.

Rival systems examined - that of a supernatural
faculty being necessary - refuted.

That of Maimonides.

Refuted.

Traditions of the Pharisees and the Papists rejected.



CHAPTER VIII. - Of the authorship of the Pentateuch,
and the other historical books of the Old Testament.

The Pentateuch not written by Moses.

His actual writings distinct.

Traces of late authorship in the other historical books.

All the historical books the work of one man.

Probably Ezra.

Who compiled first the book of Deuteronomy.

And then a history, distinguishing the books by the names of their subjects.



CHAPTER IX. - Other questions about these books.

That these books have not been thoroughly revised and made to agree.

That there are many doubtful readings.

That the existing marginal notes are often such.

The other explanations of these notes refuted.

The hiatus.



CHAPTER X.- An Examination of the remaining books of
the Old Testament according to the preceding method.

Chronicles, Psalms, Proverbs.

Isaiah, Jeremiah.

Ezekiel, Hosea.

Other prophets, Jonah, Job.

Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther.

The author declines to undertake a similar detailed
examination of the New Testament.

Author's Endnotes to the Treatise





CHAPTER VI.  -  OF MIRACLES.

(1) As men are accustomed to call Divine the knowledge which transcends
human understanding, so also do they style Divine, or the work of God,
anything of which the cause is not generally known: for the masses think
that the power and providence of God are most clearly displayed by events
that are extraordinary and contrary to the conception they have formed of
nature, especially if such events bring them any profit or convenience: they
think that the clearest possible proof of God's existence is afforded when
nature, as they suppose, breaks her accustomed order, and consequently they
believe that those who explain or endeavour to understand phenomena or
miracles through their natural causes are doing away with God and His
providence. (2) They suppose, forsooth, that God is inactive so long as
nature works in her accustomed order, and vice versa, that the power of
nature and natural causes are idle so long as God is acting: thus they
imagine two powers distinct one from the other, the power of God and the
power of nature, though the latter is in a sense determined by God, or (as
most people believe now) created by Him. (3) What they mean by either, and
what they understand by God and nature they do not know, except that they
imagine the power of God to be like that of some royal potentate, and
nature's power to consist in force and energy.

(4) The masses then style unusual phenomena, "miracles," and partly from
piety, partly for the sake of opposing the students of science, prefer to
remain in ignorance of natural causes, and only to hear of those things
which they know least, and consequently admire most. (5) In fact, the common
people can only adore God, and refer all things to His power by removing
natural causes, and conceiving things happening out of their due course, and
only admires the power of God when the power of nature is conceived of as in
subjection to it.

(6) This idea seems to have taken its rise among the early Jews who saw the
Gentiles round them worshipping visible gods such as the sun, the moon, the
earth, water, air, &c., and in order to inspire the conviction that such
divinities were weak and inconstant, or changeable, told how they themselves
were under the sway of an invisible God, and narrated their miracles,
trying further to show that the God whom they worshipped arranged the whole
of nature for their sole benefit: this idea was so pleasing to humanity that
men go on to this day imagining miracles, so that they may believe
themselves God's favourites, and the final cause for which God created and
directs all things.

(7) What pretension will not people in their folly advance! (8) They have no
single sound idea concerning either God or nature, they confound God's
decrees with human decrees, they conceive nature as so limited that they
believe man to be its chief part! (9) I have spent enough space in setting
forth these common ideas and prejudices concerning nature and miracles, but
in order to afford a regular demonstration I will show -

(10) I. That nature cannot be contravened, but that she preserves a fixed
and immutable order, and at the same time I will explain what is meant by a
miracle.

(11) II. That God's nature and existence, and consequently His providence
cannot be known from miracles, but that they can all be much better
perceived from the fixed and immutable order of nature.

(12) III. That by the decrees and volitions, and consequently the providence
of God, Scripture (as I will prove by Scriptural examples) means nothing but
nature's order following necessarily from her eternal laws.

(13) IV. Lastly, I will treat of the method of interpreting Scriptural
miracles, and the chief points to be noted concerning the narratives of
them.

(14) Such are the principal subjects which will be discussed in this
chapter, and which will serve, I think, not a little to further the object
of this treatise.

(15) Our first point is easily proved from what we showed in Chap. IV. about
Divine law - namely, that all that God wishes or determines involves eternal
necessity, and truth, for we demonstrated that God's understanding is
identical with His will, and that it is the same thing to say that God wills
a thing, as to say, that He understands it; hence, as it follows
necessarily, from the Divine nature and perfection that God understands a
thing as it is, it follows no less necessarily that He wills it as it is.
(16) Now, as nothing is necessarily true save only by, Divine decree, it is
plain that the universal laws of nature are decrees of God following from
the necessity and perfection of the Divine nature. (17) Hence, any event
happening in nature which contravened nature's universal laws, would
necessarily also contravene the Divine decree, nature, and understanding; or
if anyone asserted that God acts in contravention to the laws of nature, he,
ipso facto, would be compelled to assert that God acted against His own
nature - an evident absurdity. (18) One might easily show from the same
premises that the power and efficiency, of nature are in themselves the
Divine power and efficiency, and that the Divine power is the very essence
of God, but this I gladly pass over for the present.

(19) Nothing, then, comes to pass in nature (N.B. I do not mean here by
"nature," merely matter and its modifications, but infinite other things
besides matter.) in contravention to her universal laws, nay, everything
agrees with them and follows from them, for whatsoever comes to pass, comes
to pass by the will and eternal decree of God; that is, as we have just
pointed out, whatever comes to pass, comes to pass according to laws and
rules which involve eternal necessity and truth; nature, therefore, always
observes laws and rules which involve eternal necessity, and truth, although
they may not all be known to us, and therefore she keeps a fixed and mutable
order. (20) Nor is there any sound reason for limiting the power and
efficacy of nature, and asserting that her laws are fit for certain
purposes, but not for all; for as the efficacy, and power of nature, are the
very, efficacy and power of God, and as the laws and rules of nature are the
decrees of God, it is in every way to be believed that the power of nature
is infinite, and that her laws are broad enough to embrace everything
conceived by, the Divine intellect; the only alternative is to assert that
God has created nature so weak, and has ordained for her laws so barren,
that He is repeatedly compelled to come afresh to her aid if He wishes that
she should be preserved, and that things should happen as He desires: a
conclusion, in My opinion, very far removed from reason. (21) Further, as
nothing happens in nature which does not follow from her laws, and as her
laws embrace everything conceived by the Divine intellect, and lastly, as
nature preserves a fixed and immutable order; it most clearly follows that
miracles are only intelligible as in relation to human opinions, and merely
mean events of which the natural cause cannot be explained by a reference to
any ordinary occurrence, either by us, or at any rate, by the writer and
narrator of the miracle.

(22) We may, in fact, say that a miracle is an event of which the causes
annot be explained by the natural reason through a reference to ascertained
workings of nature; but since miracles were wrought according to the
understanding of the masses, who are wholly ignorant of the workings of
nature, it is certain that the ancients took for a miracle whatever they
could not explain by the method adopted by the unlearned in such cases,
namely, an appeal to the memory, a recalling of something similar, which is
ordinarily regarded without wonder; for most people think they sufficiently
understand a thing when they have ceased to wonder at it. (23) The ancients,
then, and indeed most men up to the present day, had no other criterion for
a miracle; hence we cannot doubt that many things are narrated in Scripture
as miracles of which the causes could easily be explained by reference to
ascertained workings of nature. (24) We have hinted as much in Chap. II., in
speaking of the sun standing still in the time of Joshua, and to say on the
subject when we come to treat of the interpretation of miracles later on in
this chapter.

(25) It is now time to pass on to the second point, and show that we cannot
gain an understanding of God's essence, existence, or providence by means of
miracles, but that these truths are much better perceived through the fixed
and immutable order of nature. (26) I thus proceed with the demonstration.
(27) As God's existence is not self-evident (6) it must necessarily be
inferred from ideas so firmly and incontrovertibly true, that no power can
be postulated or conceived sufficient to impugn them. (28) They ought
certainly so to appear to us when we infer from them God's existence, if we
wish to place our conclusion beyond the reach of doubt; for if we could
conceive that such ideas could be impugned by any power whatsoever, we
should doubt of their truth, we should doubt of our conclusion, namely, of
God's existence, and should never be able to be certain of anything. (29)
Further, we know that nothing either agrees with or is contrary to nature,
unless it agrees with or is contrary to these primary ideas; wherefore if we
would conceive that anything could be done in nature by any power whatsoever
which would be contrary to the laws of nature, it would also be contrary to
our primary ideas, and we should have either to reject it as absurd, or else
to cast doubt (as just shown) on our primary ideas, and consequently on the
existence of God, and on everything howsoever perceived. (30) Therefore
miracles, in the sense of events contrary to the laws of nature, so far from
demonstrating to us the existence of God, would, on the contrary, lead us to
doubt it, where, otherwise, we might have been absolutely certain of it, as
knowing that nature follows a fixed and immutable order.

(31) Let us take miracle as meaning that which cannot be explained through
natural causes. (32) This may be interpreted in two senses: either as that
which has natural causes, but cannot be examined by the human intellect; or
as that which has no cause save God and God's will. (33) But as all things
which come to pass through natural causes, come to pass also solely
through the will and power of God, it comes to this, that a miracle, whether
it has natural causes or not, is a result which cannot be explained by its
cause, that is a phenomenon which surpasses human understanding; but from
such a phenomenon, and certainly from a result surpassing our understanding,
we can gain no knowledge. (34) For whatsoever we understand clearly and
distinctly should be plain to us either in itself or by means of something
else clearly and distinctly understood; wherefore from a miracle or a
phenomenon which we cannot understand, we can gain no knowledge of God's
essence, or existence, or indeed anything about God or nature; whereas when
we know that all things are ordained and ratified by God, that the
operations of nature follow from the essence of God, and that the laws of
nature are eternal decrees and volitions of God, we must perforce conclude
that our knowledge of God, and of God's will increases in proportion to our
knowledge and clear understanding of nature, as we see how she depends on
her primal cause, and how she works according to eternal law. (35) Wherefore
so far as our understanding goes, those phenomena which we clearly and
distinctly understand have much better right to be called works of God, and
to be referred to the will of God than those about which we are entirely
ignorant, although they appeal powerfully to the imagination, and compel
men's admiration.

(36) It is only phenomena that we clearly and distinctly understand, which
heighten our knowledge of God, and most clearly indicate His will and
decrees. (37) Plainly, they are but triflers who, when they cannot explain a
thing, run back to the will of God; this is, truly, a ridiculous way of
expressing ignorance. (38) Again, even supposing that some conclusion could
be drawn from miracles, we could not possibly infer from them the existence
of God: for a miracle being an event under limitations is the expression of
a fixed and limited power; therefore we could not possibly infer from an
effect of this kind the existence of a cause whose power is infinite, but at
the utmost only of a cause whose power is greater than that of the said
effect. (39) I say at the utmost, for a phenomenon may be the result of many
concurrent causes, and its power may be less than the power of the sum of
such causes, but far greater than that of any one of them taken
individually. (40) On the other hand, the laws of nature, as we have
shown, extend over infinity, and are conceived by us as, after a fashion,
eternal, and nature works in accordance with them in a fixed and immutable
order; therefore, such laws indicate to us in a certain degree the infinity,
the eternity, and the immutability of God.

(40) We may conclude, then, that we cannot gain knowledge of the existence
and providence of God by means of miracles, but that we can far better infer
them from the fixed and immutable order of nature. (41) By miracle, I here
mean an event which surpasses, or is thought to surpass, human
comprehension: for in so far as it is supposed to destroy or interrupt the
order of nature or her laws, it not only can give us no knowledge of God,
but, contrariwise, takes away that which we naturally have, and makes us
doubt of God and everything else.

(42) Neither do I recognize any difference between an event against the laws
of nature and an event beyond the laws of nature (that is, according to
some, an event which does not contravene nature, though she is inadequate to
produce or effect it) - for a miracle is wrought in, and not beyond nature,
though it may be said in itself to be above nature, and, therefore,
must necessarily interrupt the order of nature, which otherwise we conceive
of as fixed and unchangeable, according to God's decrees. (43) If,
therefore, anything should come to pass in nature which does not follow from
her laws, it would also be in contravention to the order which God has
established in nature for ever through universal natural laws: it would,
therefore, be in contravention to God's nature and laws, and, consequently,
belief in it would throw doubt upon everything, and lead to Atheism.

(44) I think I have now sufficiently established my second point, so that we
can again conclude that a miracle, whether in contravention to, or beyond,
nature, is a mere absurdity; and, therefore, that what is meant in Scripture
by a miracle can only be a work of nature, which surpasses, or is believed
to surpass, human comprehension. (45) Before passing on to my third point, I
will adduce Scriptural authority for my assertion that God cannot be known
from miracles. (46) Scripture nowhere states the doctrine openly, but it can
readily be inferred from several passages. (47) Firstly, that in which Moses
commands (Deut. xiii.) that a false prophet should be put to death, even
though he work miracles: "If there arise a prophet among you, and giveth
thee a sign or wonder, and the sign or wonder come to pass, saying, Let us
go after other gods . . . thou shalt not hearken unto the voice of that
prophet; for the Lord your God proveth you, and that prophet shall be put to
death." (48) From this it clearly follows that miracles could be wrought
even by false prophets; and that, unless men are honestly endowed with the
true knowledge and love of God, they may be as easily led by miracles to
follow false gods as to follow the true God; for these words are added: "For
the Lord your God tempts you, that He may know whether you love Him with all
your heart and with all your mind."

(49) Further, the Israelites, from all their miracles, were unable to form a
sound conception of God, as their experience testified: for when they had
persuaded themselves that Moses had departed from among them, they
petitioned Aaron to give them visible gods; and the idea of God they had
formed as the result of all their miracles was - a calf!

(50) Asaph, though he had heard of so many miracles, yet doubted of the
providence of God, and would have turned himself from the true way, if he
had not at last come to understand true blessedness. (See Ps. lxxxiii.) (51)
Solomon, too, at a time when the Jewish nation was at the height of its
prosperity, suspects that all things happen by chance. (See Eccles. iii:19,
20, 21; and chap. ix:2, 3, &c.)

(52) Lastly, nearly all the prophets found it very hard to reconcile the
order of nature and human affairs with the conception they had formed of
God's providence, whereas philosophers who endeavour to understand things by
clear conceptions of them, rather than by miracles, have always found the
task extremely easy - at least, such of them as place true happiness solely
in virtue and peace of mind, and who aim at obeying nature, rather than
being obeyed by her. (53) Such persons rest assured that God directs nature
according to the requirements of universal laws, not according to the
requirements of the particular laws of human nature, and trial, therefore,
God's scheme comprehends, not only the human race, but the whole of nature.

(54) It is plain, then, from Scripture itself, that miracles can give no
knowledge of God, nor clearly teach us the providence of God. (55) As to the
frequent statements in Scripture, that God wrought miracles to make Himself
plain to man - as in Exodus x:2, where He deceived the Egyptians, and gave
signs of Himself, that the Israelites might know that He was God,- it does
not, therefore, follow that miracles really taught this truth, but only that
the Jews held opinions which laid them easily open to conviction by
miracles. (56) We have shown in Chap. II. that the reasons assigned by the
prophets, or those which are formed from revelation, are not assigned
in accordance with ideas universal and common to all, but in accordance with
the accepted doctrines, however absurd, and with the opinions of those to
whom the revelation was given, or those whom the Holy Spirit wished to
convince.

(57) This we have illustrated by many Scriptural instances, and can further
cite Paul, who to the Greeks was a Greek, and to the Jews a Jew. (58) But
although these miracles could convince the Egyptians and Jews from their
standpoint, they could not give a true idea and knowledge of God, but only
cause them to admit that there was a Deity more powerful than anything known
to them, and that this Deity took special care of the Jews, who had just
then an unexpectedly happy issue of all their affairs. (59) They could not
teach them that God cares equally for all, for this can be taught only by
philosophy: the Jews, and all who took their knowledge of God's providence
from the dissimilarity of human conditions of life and the inequalities of
fortune, persuaded themselves that God loved the Jews above all men, though
they did not surpass their fellows in true human perfection.

(60) I now go on to my third point, and show from Scripture that the decrees
and mandates of God, and consequently His providence, are merely the order
of nature - that is, when Scripture describes an event as accomplished by
God or God's will, we must understand merely that it was in accordance with
the law and order of nature, not, as most people believe, that nature had
for a season ceased to act, or that her order was temporarily interrupted.
(61) But Scripture does not directly teach matters unconnected with its
doctrine, wherefore it has no care to explain things by their natural
causes, nor to expound matters merely speculative. (62) Wherefore our
conclusion must be gathered by inference from those Scriptural narratives
which happen to be written more at length and circumstantially than usual.
(63) Of these I will cite a few.

(64) In the first book of Samuel, ix:15, 16, it is related that God revealed
to Samuel that He would send Saul to him, yet God did not send Saul to
Samuel as people are wont to send one man to another. (65) His "sending" was
merely the ordinary course of nature. (66) Saul was looking for the asses he
had lost, and was meditating a return home without them, when, at the
suggestion of his servant, he went to the prophet Samuel, to learn from him
where he might find them. (67) From no part of the narrative does it appear
that Saul had any command from God to visit Samuel beyond this natural
motive.

(68) In Psalm cv. 24 it is said that God changed the hearts of the
Egyptians, so that they hated the Israelites. (69) This was evidently a
natural change, as appears from Exodus, chap.i., where we find no slight
reason for the Egyptians reducing the Israelites to slavery.

(70) In Genesis ix:13, God tells Noah that He will set His bow in the cloud;
this action of God's is but another way of expressing the refraction and
reflection which the rays of the sun are subjected to in drops of water.

(71) In Psalm cxlvii:18, the natural action and warmth of the wind, by which
hoar frost and snow are melted, are styled the word of the Lord, and in
verse 15 wind and cold are called the commandment and word of God.

(72) In Psalm civ:4, wind and fire are called the angels and ministers of
God, and various other passages of the same sort are found in Scripture,
clearly showing that the decree, commandment, fiat, and word of God are
merely expressions for the action and order of nature.

(73) Thus it is plain that all the events narrated in Scripture came to pass
naturally, and are referred directly to God because Scripture, as we have
shown, does not aim at explaining things by their natural causes, but only
at narrating what appeals to the popular imagination, and doing so in the
manner best calculated to excite wonder, and consequently to impress the
minds of the masses with devotion. (74) If, therefore, events are found in
the Bible which we cannot refer to their causes, nay, which seem entirely to
contradict the order of nature, we must not come to a stand, but assuredly
believe that whatever did really happen happened naturally. (75) This view
is confirmed by the fact that in the case of every miracle there were many
attendant circumstances, though these were not always related, especially
where the narrative was of a poetic character.

(76) The circumstances of the miracles clearly show, I maintain, that
natural causes were needed. (77) For instance, in order to infect the
Egyptians with blains, it was necessary that Moses should scatter ashes in
the air (Exod. ix: 10); the locusts also came upon the land of Egypt by a
command of God in accordance with nature, namely, by an east wind blowing
for a whole day and night; and they departed by a very strong west wind
(Exod. x:14, 19). (78) By a similar Divine mandate the sea opened a way for
the Jews (Exo. xiv:21), namely, by an east wind which blew very strongly all
night.

(79) So, too, when Elisha would revive the boy who was believed to be dead,
he was obliged to bend over him several times until the flesh of the child
waxed warm, and at last he opened his eyes (2 Kings iv:34, 35).

(80) Again, in John's Gospel (chap. ix.) certain acts are mentioned as
performed by Christ preparatory to healing the blind man, and there are
numerous other instances showing that something further than the absolute
fiat of God is required for working a miracle.

(81) Wherefore we may believe that, although the circumstances attending
miracles are not related always or in full detail, yet a miracle was never
performed without them.

(82) This is confirmed by Exodus xiv:27, where it is simply stated that
"Moses stretched forth his hand, and the waters of the sea returned to their
strength in the morning," no mention being made of a wind; but in the song
of Moses (Exod. xv:10) we read, "Thou didst blow with Thy wind (i.e. with a
very strong wind), and the sea covered them." (83) Thus the attendant
circumstance is omitted in the history, and the miracle is thereby enhanced.

(84) But perhaps someone will insist that we find many things in Scripture
which seem in nowise explicable by natural causes, as for instance, that the
sins of men and their prayers can be the cause of rain and of the earth's
fertility, or that faith can heal the blind, and so on. (85) But I think
I have already made sufficient answer: I have shown that Scripture does not
explain things by their secondary causes, but only narrates them in the
order and the style which has most power to move men, and especially
uneducated men, to devotion; and therefore it speaks inaccurately of God and
of events, seeing that its object is not to convince the reason, but to
attract and lay hold of the imagination. (86) If the Bible were to describe
the destruction of an empire in the style of political historians, the
masses would remain unstirred, whereas the contrary is the case when it
adopts the method of poetic description, and refers all things
immediately to God. (87) When, therefore, the Bible says that the earth is
barren because of men's sins, or that the blind were healed by faith, we
ought to take no more notice than when it says that God is angry at men's
sins, that He is sad, that He repents of the good He has promised and done;
or that on seeing a sign he remembers something He had promised, and other
similar expressions, which are either thrown out poetically or related
according to the opinion and prejudices of the writer.

(88) We may, then, be absolutely certain that every event which is truly
described in Scripture necessarily happened, like everything else, according
to natural laws; and if anything is there set down which can be proved in
set terms to contravene the order of nature, or not to be deducible
therefrom, we must believe it to have been foisted into the sacred writings
by irreligious hands; for whatsoever is contrary to nature is also contrary
to reason, and whatsoever is contrary to reason is absurd, and, ipso facto,
to be rejected.

(89) There remain some points concerning the interpretation of miracles to
be noted, or rather to be recapitulated, for most of them have been already
stated. (90) These I proceed to discuss in the fourth division of my
subject, and I am led to do so lest anyone should, by wrongly interpreting a
miracle, rashly suspect that he has found something in Scripture contrary to
human reason.

(91) It is very rare for men to relate an event simply as it happened,
without adding any element of their own judgment. (92) When they see or hear
anything new, they are, unless strictly on their guard, so occupied with
their own preconceived opinions that they perceive something quite
different from the plain facts seen or heard, especially if such facts
surpass the comprehension of the beholder or hearer, and, most of all, if he
is interested in their happening in a given way.

(93) Thus men relate in chronicles and histories their own opinions rather
than actual events, so that one and the same event is so differently related
by two men of different opinions, that it seems like two separate
occurrences; and, further, it is very easy from historical chronicles to
gather the personal opinions of the historian.

(94) I could cite many instances in proof of this from the writings both of
natural philosophers and historians, but I will content myself with one only
from Scripture, and leave the reader to judge of the rest.

(95) In the time of Joshua the Hebrews held the ordinary opinion that the
sun moves with a daily motion, and that the earth remains at rest; to this
preconceived opinion they adapted the miracle which occurred during their
battle with the five kings. (96) They did not simply relate that that day
was longer than usual, but asserted that the sun and moon stood still, or
ceased from their motion - a statement which would be of great service to
them at that time in convincing and proving by experience to the Gentiles,
who worshipped the sun, that the sun was under the control of another deity
who could compel it to change its daily course. (97) Thus, partly through
religious motives, partly through preconceived opinions, they conceived of
and related the occurrence as something quite different from what really
happened.

(98) Thus in order to interpret the Scriptural miracles and understand from
the narration of them how they really happened, it is necessary to know the
opinions of those who first related them, and have recorded them for us in
writing, and to distinguish such opinions from the actual impression made
upon their senses, otherwise we shall confound opinions and judgments with
the actual miracle as it really occurred: nay, further, we shall confound
actual events with symbolical and imaginary ones. (99) For many things are
narrated in Scripture as real, and were believed to be real, which were in
fact only symbolical and imaginary. (100) As, for instance, that God came
down from heaven (Exod. xix:28, Deut. v:28), and that Mount Sinai smoked
because God descended upon it surrounded with fire; or, again that Elijah
ascended into heaven in a chariot of fire, with horses of fire; all these
things were assuredly merely symbols adapted to the opinions of those who
have handed them down to us as they were represented to them, namely, as
real. (101) All who have any education know that God has no right hand nor
left; that He is not moved nor at rest, nor in a particular place, but that
He is absolutely infinite and contains in Himself all perfections.

(102) These things, I repeat, are known to whoever judges of things by the
perception of pure reason, and not according as his imagination is affected
by his outward senses. (103) Following the example of the masses who imagine
a bodily Deity, holding a royal court with a throne on the convexity of
heaven, above the stars, which are believed to be not very, far off from the
earth.

(104) To these and similar opinions very many narrations in Scripture are
adapted, and should not, therefore, be mistaken by philosophers for
realities.

(105) Lastly, in order to understand, in the case of miracles, what actually
took place, we ought to be familiar with Jewish phrases and metaphors;
anyone who did not make sufficient allowance for these, would be continually
seeing miracles in Scripture where nothing of the kind is intended by the
writer; he would thus miss the knowledge not only of what actually happened,
but also of the mind of the writers of the sacred text. (106) For instance,
Zechariah speaking of some future war says (chap. xiv;7): "It shall be one
day which shall be known to the Lord, not day, nor night; but at even time
it shall be light." In these words he seems to predict a great miracle, yet
he only means that the battle will be doubtful the whole day, that the issue
will be known only to God, but that in the evening they will gain the
victory: the prophets frequently used to predict victories and defeats of
the nations in similar phrases. (107) Thus Isaiah, describing the
destruction of Babylon, says (chap. xiii.): "The stars of heaven, and the
constellations thereof, shall not give their light; the sun shall be
darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to
shine." (108) Now I suppose no one imagines that at the destruction of
Babylon these phenomena actually occurred any more than that which the
prophet adds, "For I will make the heavens to tremble, and remove the earth
out of her place."

(109) So, too, Isaiah in foretelling to the Jews that they would return from
Babylon to Jerusalem in safety, and would not suffer from thirst on their
journey, says: "And they thirsted not when He led them through the deserts;
He caused the waters to flow out of the rocks for them; He clave the rocks,
and the waters gushed out." (110) These words merely mean that the Jews,
like other people, found springs in the desert, at which they quenched their
thirst; for when the Jews returned to Jerusalem with the consent of Cyrus,
it is admitted that no similar miracles befell them.

(111) In this way many occurrences in the Bible are to be regarded merely as
Jewish expressions. (112) There is no need for me to go through them in
detail; but I will call attention generally to the fact that the Jews
employed such phrases not only rhetorically, but also, and indeed chiefly,
from devotional motives. (113) Such is the reason for the substitution of
"bless God" for "curse God" in 1 Kings xxi:10, and Job ii:9, and for all
things being referred to God, whence it appears that the Bible seems to
relate nothing but miracles, even when speaking of the most ordinary
occurrences, as in the examples given above.

(114) Hence we must believe that when the Bible says that the Lord hardened
Pharaoh's heart, it only means that Pharaoh was obstinate; when it says that
God opened the windows of heaven, it only means that it rained very hard,
and so on. (115) When we reflect on these peculiarities, and also on the
fact that most things are related very shortly, with very little details and
almost in abridgments, we shall see that there is hardly anything in
Scripture which can be proved contrary to natural reason, while, on the
other hand, many things which before seemed obscure, will after a little
consideration be understood and easily explained.

(116) I think I have now very clearly explained all that I proposed to
explain, but before I finish this chapter I would call attention to the fact
that I have adopted a different method in speaking of miracles to that which
I employed in treating of prophecy. (117) Of prophecy I have asserted
nothing which could not be inferred from promises revealed in Scripture,
whereas in this chapter I have deduced my conclusions solely from the
principles ascertained by the natural light of reason. (118) I have
proceeded in this way advisedly, for prophecy, in that it surpasses human
knowledge, is a purely theological question; therefore, I knew that I could
not make any assertions about it, nor learn wherein it consists, except
through deductions from premises that have been revealed; therefore I was
compelled to collate the history of prophecy, and to draw therefrom certain
conclusions which would teach me, in so far as such teaching is possible,
the nature and properties of the gift. (119) But in the case of miracles, as
our inquiry is a question purely philosophical (namely, whether anything can
happen which contravenes or does not follow from the laws of nature), I was
not under any such necessity: I therefore thought it wiser to unravel the
difficulty through premises ascertained and thoroughly known by could also
easily have solved the problem merely from the doctrines and fundamental
principles of Scripture: in order that everyone may acknowledge this, I will
briefly show how it could be done.

(120) Scripture makes the general assertion in several passages that
nature's course is fixed and unchangeable. (121) In Ps. cxlviii:6, for
instance, and Jer. xxxi:35. (122) The wise man also, in Eccles. i:10,
distinctly teaches that "there is nothing new under the sun," and in verses
11, 12, illustrating the same idea, he adds that although something
occasionally happens which seems new, it is not really new, but "hath been
already of old time, which was before us, whereof there is no remembrance,
neither shall there be any remembrance of things that are to come with
those that come after." (123) Again in chap. iii:11, he says, "God hath made
everything beautiful in his time," and immediately afterwards adds, "I know
that whatsoever God doeth, it shall be for ever; nothing can be put to it,
nor anything taken from it."

(124) Now all these texts teach most distinctly that nature preserves a
fixed and unchangeable order, and that God in all ages, known and unknown,
has been the same; further, that the laws of nature are so perfect, that
nothing can be added thereto nor taken therefrom; and, lastly, that miracles
only appear as something new because of man's ignorance.

(125) Such is the express teaching of Scripture: nowhere does Scripture
assert that anything happens which contradicts, or cannot follow from the
laws of nature; and, therefore, we should not attribute to it such a
doctrine.

(126) To these considerations we must add, that miracles require causes and
attendant circumstances, and that they follow, not from some mysterious
royal power which the masses attribute to God, but from the Divine rule and
decree, that is (as we have shown from Scripture itself) from the laws and
order of nature; lastly, that miracles can be wrought even by false
prophets, as is proved from Deut. xiii. and Matt. xxiv:24.

(127) The conclusion, then, that is most plainly put before us is, that
miracles were natural occurrences, and must therefore be so explained as to
appear neither new (in the words of Solomon) nor contrary to nature, but, as
far as possible, in complete agreement with ordinary events. (128) This can
easily be done by anyone, now that I have set forth the rules drawn from
Scripture. (129) Nevertheless, though I maintain that Scripture teaches this
doctrine, I do not assert that it teaches it as a truth necessary to
salvation, but only that the prophets were in agreement with ourselves on
the point; therefore everyone is free to think on the subject as he
likes, according as he thinks it best for himself, and most likely to
conduce to the worship of God and to singlehearted religion.

(130) This is also the opinion of Josephus, for at the conclusion of the
second book of his "Antiquities," he writes: Let no man think this story
incredible of the sea's dividing to save these people, for we find it in
ancient records that this hath been seen before, whether by God's
extraordinary will or by the course of nature it is indifferent. (131) The
same thing happened one time to the Macedonians, under the command of
Alexander, when for want of another passage the Pamphylian Sea divided to
make them way; God's Providence making use of Alexander at that time as His
instrument for destroying the Persian Empire. (132) This is attested by all
the historians who have pretended to write the Life of that Prince. (133)
But people are at liberty to think what they please."

(134) Such are the words of Josephus, and such is his opinion on faith in
miracles.





CHAPTER VII.  -  OF THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE

(1) When people declare, as all are ready, to do, that the Bible is the Word
of God teaching man true blessedness and the way of salvation, they
evidently do not mean what they, say; for the masses take no pains at all to
live according to Scripture, and we see most people endeavouring to hawk
about their own commentaries as the word of God, and giving their best
efforts, under the guise of religion, to compelling others to think as they
do: we generally see, I say, theologians anxious to learn how to wring their
inventions and sayings out of the sacred text, and to fortify, them with
Divine authority. (2) Such persons never display, less scruple or
more zeal than when they, are interpreting Scripture or the mind of the Holy
Ghost; if we ever see them perturbed, it is not that they fear to attribute
some error to the Holy Spirit, and to stray from the right path, but that
they are afraid to be convicted of error by, others, and thus to overthrow
and bring into contempt their own authority. (3) But if men really believed
what they verbally testify of Scripture, they would adopt quite a different
plan of life: their minds would not be agitated by so many contentions, nor
so many hatreds, and they would cease to be excited by such a blind and rash
passion for interpreting the sacred writings, and excogitating novelties
in religion. (4) On the contrary, they would not dare to adopt, as the
teaching of Scripture, anything which they could not plainly deduce
therefrom: lastly, those sacrilegious persons who have dared, in several
passages, to interpolate the Bible, would have shrunk from so great a
crime, and would have stayed their sacrilegious hands.

(5) Ambition and unscrupulousness have waxed so powerful, that religion is
thought to consist, not so much in respecting the writings of the Holy
Ghost, as in defending human commentaries, so that religion is no longer
identified with charity, but with spreading discord and propagating
insensate hatred disguised under the name of zeal for the Lord, and eager
ardour.

(6) To these evils we must add superstition, which teaches men to despise
reason and nature, and only to admire and venerate that which is repugnant
to both: whence it is not wonderful that for the sake of increasing the
admiration and veneration felt for Scripture, men strive to explain it so as
to make it appear to contradict, as far as possible, both one and the other:
thus they dream that most profound mysteries lie hid in the Bible, and weary
themselves out in the investigation of these absurdities, to the neglect of
what is useful. (7) Every result of their diseased imagination they
attribute to the Holy Ghost, and strive to defend with the utmost zeal and
passion; for it is an observed fact that men employ their reason to defend
conclusions arrived at by reason, but conclusions arrived at by the passions
are defended by the passions.

(8) If we would separate ourselves from the crowd and escape from
theological prejudices, instead of rashly accepting human commentaries for
Divine documents, we must consider the true method of interpreting Scripture
and dwell upon it at some length: for if we remain in ignorance of this we
cannot know, certainly, what the Bible and the Holy Spirit wish to teach.

(9)I may sum up the matter by saying that the method of interpreting
Scripture does not widely differ from the method of interpreting nature - in
fact, it is almost the same. (10) For as the interpretation of nature
consists in the examination of the history of nature, and therefrom
deducing definitions of natural phenomena on certain fixed axioms, so
Scriptural interpretation proceeds by the examination of Scripture, and
inferring the intention of its authors as a legitimate conclusion from its
fundamental principles. (11) By working in this manner everyone will
always advance without danger of error - that is, if they admit no
principles for interpreting Scripture, and discussing its contents save such
as they find in Scripture itself - and will be able with equal security to
discuss what surpasses our understanding, and what is known by the natural
light of reason.

(12) In order to make clear that such a method is not only correct, but is
also the only one advisable, and that it agrees with that employed in
interpreting nature, I must remark that Scripture very often treats of
matters which cannot be deduced from principles known to reason: for it is
chiefly made up of narratives and revelation: the narratives generally
contain miracles - that is, as we have shown in the last chapter, relations
of extraordinary natural occurrences adapted to the opinions and judgment of
the historians who recorded them: the revelations also were adapted to the
opinions of the prophets, as we showed in Chap. II., and in themselves
surpassed human comprehension. (13) Therefore the knowledge of all these -
that is, of nearly the whole contents of Scripture, must be sought from
Scripture alone, even as the knowledge of nature is sought from nature. (14)
As for the moral doctrines which are also contained in the Bible, they may
be demonstrated from received axioms, but we cannot prove in the same manner
that Scripture intended to teach them, this can only be learned from
Scripture itself.

(15) If we would bear unprejudiced witness to the Divine origin of
Scripture, we must prove solely on its own authority that it teaches true
moral doctrines, for by such means alone can its Divine origin be
demonstrated: we have shown that the certitude of the prophets depended
chiefly on their having minds turned towards what is just and good,
therefore we ought to have proof of their possessing this quality before we
repose faith in them. (16) From miracles God's divinity cannot be proved, as
I have already shown, and need not now repeat, for miracles could be
wrought by false prophets. (17) Wherefore the Divine origin of Scripture
must consist solely in its teaching true virtue. (18) But we must come to
our conclusion simply on Scriptural grounds, for if we were unable to do so
we could not, unless strongly prejudiced accept the Bible and bear
witness to its Divine origin.

(19) Our knowledge of Scripture must then be looked for in Scripture only.

(20) Lastly, Scripture does not give us definition of things any more than
nature does: therefore, such definitions must be sought in the latter case
from the diverse workings of nature; in the former case, from the various
narratives about the given subject which occur in the Bible.

(21) The universal rule, then, in interpreting Scripture is to accept
nothing as an authoritative Scriptural statement which we do not perceive
very clearly when we examine it in the light of its history. (22) What I
mean by its history, and what should be the chief points elucidated, I will
now explain.

(23) The history of a Scriptural statement comprises -

(23) I. The nature and properties of the language in which the books of the
Bible were written, and in which their authors were, accustomed to speak.
(24) We shall thus be able to investigate every expression by comparison
with common conversational usages.

(25) Now all the writers both of the Old Testament and the New were Hebrews:
therefore, a knowledge of the Hebrew language is before all things
necessary, not only for the comprehension of the Old Testament, which was
written in that tongue, but also of the New: for although the latter was
published in other languages, yet its characteristics are Hebrew.

(26) II. An analysis of each book and arrangement of its contents under
heads; so that we may have at hand the various texts which treat of a given
subject. (27) Lastly, a note of all the passages which are ambiguous or
obscure, or which seem mutually contradictory.

(28) I call passages clear or obscure according as their meaning is inferred
easily or with difficulty in relation to the context, not according as their
truth is perceived easily or the reverse by reason. (29) We are at work not
on the truth of passages, but solely on their meaning. (30) We must take
especial care, when we are in search of the meaning of a text, not to be led
away by our reason in so far as it is founded on principles of natural
knowledge (to say nothing of prejudices): in order not to confound the
meaning of a passage with its truth, we must examine it solely by means of
the signification of the words, or by a reason acknowledging no foundation
but Scripture.

(31) I will illustrate my meaning by an example. (32) The words of Moses,
"God is a fire" and "God is jealous," are perfectly clear so long as we
regard merely the signification of the words, and I therefore reckon them

among the clear passages, though in relation to reason and truth they are
most obscure: still, although the literal meaning is repugnant to the
natural light of reason, nevertheless, if it cannot be clearly overruled on
grounds and principles derived from its Scriptural "history," it, that is,
the literal meaning, must be the one retained: and contrariwise if these
passages literally interpreted are found to clash with principles derived
from Scripture, though such literal interpretation were in absolute harmony
with reason, they must be interpreted in a different manner, i.e.
metaphorically.